«n  Lib.  AGBIC. 


m 


;HOW    TO 

G ROW  AND 
MA  R  K  E  T 
F  R  U  I  T 


PRICE      50    C.ENTS 


/  OF  THE 

(        COLLEGE  OF 


How  to  Grow  and 
Market  Fruit 


Practical  Explanations  and 
Directions  for  Making 
Fruit  Trees  Produce  Profit 


PUBLISHED  BY 

HARRISON'S  NURSERIES 

BERLIN,  MARYLAND 

Copyright  IQTI,  by  Orlando  Harrison 


WE  FEEL  that  acknowledgment  should  be  made  to 
the  following  men  for  the  help  they  have  given  in 
making  "How  to  Grow  and  Market  Fruit"  complete 
and  reliable.    From  their  constructive  criticism  of 
the  manuscript  we  have  been  able  to  get  many  valuable  points. 
We  thank  them  here,  and  the  use  and  appreciation  of  the  ideas 
they  supplied  will  be  permanent  commendation  of  their  knowl- 
edge of  fruit  growing  and  their  courtesy. 

On  the  spraying  chapters,  the  help  of  Mr.  G.  R.  Cushman, 
Baltimore,  Md.  (of  Thomsen  Chemical  Company),  has  been 
invaluable;  for  their  criticism  on  the  book  in  general  we  are 
indebted  to  Prof.  W.  F.  Massey,  Salisbury,  Md.;  Prof.  H.  E. 
Van  Deman,  Washington,  D.  C.;  Mr.  W.  H.  Collingwood,  of 
the  "Rural  New  Yorker;"  Prof.  L.  H.  Bailey,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.; 
Mr.  J.  H.  Hale,  South  Glastonbury,  Conn.;  Mr.  Gabriel  Hiester, 
Harrisburg,  Pa.;  Mr.  G.  P.  Miller,  Romney,  W.  Va.;  Mr.  D. 
Gold  Miller,  Gerardstown,  W.  Va.;  Mr.  D.  Maurice  Wertz, 
Waynesboro,  Pa.;  Mr.  E.  J.  Rook,  Medina,  N.  Y.;  Mr.  Jacob 
R.  Edmonds,  Hagerstown,  Md. ;  Messrs.  Terpenning  &  Herring, 
Ulster  Park,  N.  Y.;  the  Department  of  Entomology  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Harrisburg,  Pa>  /  V  ,'  ,'  :  .? ' 


n  Lib 

46MC. 


Designed,  written  and  printed  by 
The  MePartend  PuWMty  Service,  Harrisburg,  Pa. 


Example  of  good  air-drainage.    Exposure  to  south  and  east,  yet  orchard  ideally 
located.   Owned  by  W.  J.  Lewis  &  Bro.,  Pittston,  Pa.  (Photo  by  W.  J.  Peck.) 


Pear  trees  and  grape-vines  along  road.    Any  fruit  trees  or  vines  good  for  this.   Practice 
utilizes  otherwise  waste  space.    Should  be  copied  everywhere. 


Cowpeas  planted  in  rows  for  combined  soil  improvement  and  pea  crop.    Applicable  to 
any  farm.    Young  apple  trees  in  Harrison's  Nurseries. 


Clean  cultivation.  Clean,  whitewashed  bark,  low,  open  heads,  in  Hood  River  orchard. 

3 


Clean  cultivated  orchard  in  Delaware.     Higher  heads  not  so  desirable  as  lower  ones. 


Splendid  care  of  young  trees,  and  effective  Norway  Spruce  windbreak  (Pennsylvania) 


Young  orchards  should  be  cultivated  clean.   Acme  harrow  will  do  the  work  well. 


Where  help  and  time  are  scarce,  plowing  and  leaving  alternate  strips  is  good  practice. 

4 


Harrison's  Service  to  Growers 

YOU  probably  know  that  our  nurseries  comprise  about  two 
thousand  acres  in  young  fruit  trees  and  strawberry 
plants,  and  that  we  own,  or  have  interests  in,  bearing 
orchards  of  apples,  peaches,  pears,  etc.,  which  cover  four  thou- 
sand acres  and  contain  two  hundred  thousand  trees. 

The  orchards  are  scattered  here  and  there  over  four  states. 
Our  bearing  trees  are  on  mountain  land  and  low  land,  on  all 
slopes,  in  all  kinds  of  soil.  Every  kind  of  disease  and  every 
sort  of  "bug"  by  which  fruit  trees  are  affected  has  to  be  fought, 
and  every  known  method  of  cultivation,  fertilizing,  protect- 
ing, pruning,  picking,  packing  and  selling  can  be  found  in 
use — at  one  time  or  another — in  our  orchards. 

Starting  as  many  young  trees  and  plants  as  we  do,  planting 
and  caring  for  as  many  orchard  trees  as  we  have,  we  get  a 
practical  working  knowledge  of  how  to  grow  fruit.  We  work  out 
the  thing  from  planting  seeds  to  receiving  the  checks  for  the 
fruit.  We  know  just  what  our  fruit  costs.  What  is  said  here 
is  the  most  practical  kind  of  hard-won  knowledge. 

To  decide  the  merits  of  a  cake,  eat  a  piece  of  it.  Our  cake 
has  been  more  than  sampled.  We  have  eaten  a  big  piece  of 
it — have  even  made  a  steady  diet  of  it  for  thirty  years.  It  is 
delicious  and  wholesome.  This  proves  that  our  materials  are 
right,  our  recipe  good  and  our  methods  correct;  for  we  have 
succeeded  in  growing  good  trees,  and  in  growing  and  selling  choice 
fruit — succeeded  beyond  what  most  men  think  is  possible. 
Our  young  trees  have  come  to  be  the  standard  for  this  country. 
Our  orchards  pay  big. 

Three  or  four  years  ago  the  thought  came  to  us  that  our 
experiences  ought  to  be  interesting  and  valuable  to  a  large 
number  of  growers  and  planters  of  fruit.  So  we  started  Harri- 
son's Service  Bureau,  and  invited  our  friends  to  ask  questions. 
Soon,  however,  so  many  questions  were  asked  that  nearly 
all  of  our  time  was  needed  to  answer  them  personally,  and  for 
this  reason  we  designed  the  first  edition  of  "How  To  Grow 
Fruit,"  published  year  before  last.  This  book  contained  a  digest 
of  what  we  had  to  say  about  the  common  processes  of  fruit- 
growing— and  letters  answering  most  of  the  queries  received. 

Our  success  with  "How  To  Grow  Fruit,"  the  ^story,  has 
been  as  marked  as  in  propagating  fruit  trees  and  in  growing 
fruit.  So  we  have  decided  to  go  a  step  further  and  give  the 
public  a  book  along  the  same  lines.  This  book  we  call  "How 
to  Grow  and  Market  Fruit,"  and  it  now  is  in  your  hands. 
It  will  anticipate  most  of  your  questions,  we  think,  and  it  may 
tell  you  things  you  would  like  to  know,  but  which  you  have 
not  asked  about,  for  it  outlines  "how  we  do  it"  in  most  of  the 
processes  and  methods  of  fruit-culture.  Should,  however, 
a  situation  arise  which  is  not  provided  for  in  the  book,  our 
stenographers  are  "on  the  job,"  and  we  urge  you  to  write 
fully  for  a  personal  reply. 

HARRISON'S  NURSERIES 

BERLIN,  MARYLAND 


The  Fourteen  Essentials 

READ  the  entire  book.  Every  chapter,  and  almost  every 
paragraph,  is  related  to  every  other  chapter  or  paragraph, 
as  each  phase  of  fruit-growing  is  related  to  every  other 
phase.  The  index  will  direct  you  to  all  the  pages  on  which 
any  subject  is  mentioned.  Where  a  tree,  orchard  or  plant 
is  mentioned  in  the  following  pages,  the  discussion  often  em- 
braces any  or  all  kinds  of  fruit  plantations. 

Fourteen  elements,  or  conditions,  are  necessary  for  growing 
all  fruit.  Each  kind  needs  certain  special  treatment,  yet  if 
any  of  these  fourteen  elements  or  conditions  are  lacking,  the 
result  is  failure,  complete  or  partial;  when  all  are  present,  and 
the  few  special  attentions  are  properly  given,  tremendous 
crops  are  reasonably  certain  year  after  year — crops  of  highly 
colored,  richly  flavored,  juicy,  firm  and  flawless  apples,  peaches, 
pears,  plums,  cherries,  quinces,  grapes  or  small  fruits. 

The  maker  of  wagons,  watches,  shoes  or  other  articles  must 
have  machinery  and  tools,  oil,  fuel,  power,  a  supply  of  raw 
material,  and  other  essentials — a  factory  and  an  organization. 
An  orchard  is  a  factory;  the  product  is  the  fruit.  By  having 
the  essentials,  we  can  make  fruit.  The  greatest  difference 
between  a  wagon  factory  and  a  fruit  factory  is  this:  We  can 
make  any  style  of  wagon  and  use  any  method,  but  in  produc- 
ing fruit  we  must  choose  the  size  and  characteristics  desired 
from  among  a  few  dozen  varieties,  and  secure  the  finished 
product  by  following  nature's  plans. 

Growing  fruit  is  easy,  and  almost  any  one  can  do  it,  yet 
it  is  more  complicated  than  wagon-making  or  watch-making. 
The  fruit-grower  is  forced  to  adopt  or  originate  ideas  and 
methods  which  fit  the  conditions;  he  cannot  make  the  con- 
ditions fit  the  idea  or  blueprint.  This  requires  study,  obser- 
vation, judgment,  work,  skill  and  perseverance.  Without  these 
the  fruit-grower  must  fail;  with  them,  he  can  make  of  fruit- 
growing something  better  than  he  could  make  of  anything 
else  in  the  world. 

The  fourteen  requirements  of  a  fruit  factory  are  suitable 
soil,  nitrogen,  potash,  phosphorus,  lime,  decaying  vegetable 
matter  and  water,  light  and  warmth  in  the  right  proportions, 
the  absence  of  enemies,  the  right  varieties,  good  trees,  good 
marketing  and  personally  applied  know-how  on  the  part  of 
the  grower. 

Every  process  described  here  is  intended  to  help  the  pro- 
ducer secure  some  of  these  vital  elements  with  the  least  pos- 
sible labor  and  cost.  That  is  the  fruit-grower's  ^problem;  his 
degree  of  success  depends  upon  how  he  solves  it,  no  matter 
what  kind  of  fruit  he  grows  or  in  what  quantities. 


Things  Needed  by  All  Fruits  Alike 

WHILE  each  kind  of  fruit  requires  special  treatment,  cer- 
tain primary  conditions  are  necessary  for  all.    Methods 
which  produce  these  conditions  with  apples,  for  instance, 
are  equally  good  for  the  peach  orchard  or  the  strawberry  patch. 
That  which  is  right  for  one  fruit,  within  these  limits,  is  right 
for  all. 

Of  these  conditions,  the  first  to  be  considered  is  the  getting 
and  keeping  of  plant  food  and  of  moisture,  which  requires 
three-fourths  of  all  the  effort  expended  in  orchard  culture. 
First,  we  shall  consider  the  question  of  moisture — of  both  too 
much  and  too  little  water. 

TOO  MUCH  WATER 

A  fruit  tree  will  not  yield  if  water  stands  about  its  roots — 
if  it  has  "wet  feet."  There  must  be  good  drainage  to  lower 
the  level  of  stagnant  water  in  the  ground.  This  is  understood 
so  generally  that  nearly  every  one  avoids  low  or  swampy  lands, 
or  underdrains  them  thoroughly  before  setting  out  trees. 
Because  it  provides  quick  natural  drainage  (ignoring  the  other 
reasons),  sloping  land  is  better  than  level  land  for  orchards. 

Good  natural  drainage  is  greatly  to  be  desired,  but  seldom 
is  found.  Even  where  it  is  markedly  good,  the  use  of  tiles  will 
give  results  which  warrant  putting  them  in.  Generally  speak- 
ing, only  the  highest,  steepest  land  should  be  left  without 
drainage.  Flat  lands  nearly  always  need  underdraining,  and 
sloping  or  rolling  land  often  has  a  close,  hard  subsoil  which 
keeps  water  standing  near  the  surface,  at  the  roots  of  the  trees. 

While  land  may  be  dry  enough  in  ordinary  seasons,  in  the 
wet  season  the  extra  amount  and  quality  of  fruit  due  to  under- 
draining  often  will  exceed  in  value  the  entire  cost  of  installing 
the  drainage.  On  hillsides,  the  underdrains  frequently  will 
prevent  washing.  In  any  land,  the  space  around  a  seepage 
spot  or  spring  may  be  the  most  fertile  in  the  field,  and  the  only 
way  to  make  this  available  is  by  draining. 

By  giving  each  place  the  drainage  it  needs,  you  can  make 
conditions  uniform  throughout  the  orchard,  adapting  the 
entire  area  to  the  same  cultural  methods.  If  some  spots  are 
hard  and  sour,  while  others  are  loose  and  dry,  they  must  be 
given  different  fertilizers  and  cultivation. 

No  matter  how  rich  in  plant  food  a  soil  may  be,  too  much 
water  will  render  the  food  useless  for  trees.  Wise  folks  may 
say  the  land  is  too  sour  or  too  cold,  or  needs  this  or  that.  No 
matter  what  the  name  of  the  trouble  is,  you  cannot  get  fruit 
from  land  that  is  too  wet.  Here  are  some  of  the  reasons: 

Before  plant  food  can  be  taken  up  by  the  roots,  much  of  it 
has  to  be  prepared  by  bacteria.  The  best  known  of  these  are 
the  legume  bacteria,  without  which  the  clovers,  peas  and 


HOW  TO  GROW  AND   MARKET  FRUIT 

vetch  will  not  thrive.  Other  bacteria  are  just  as  important. 
All  are  living  organisms,  the  same  as  animals  or  plants,  but  in 
a  lower  form,  and  they  must  have  food.  They  live  on  vege- 
table matter  and  some  plant-food  elements  which  will  not 
dissolve  in  water.  In  digesting  these  foods  the  bacteria  do  not 
destroy  them;  they  merely  change  them  into  forms  in  which 
the  trees  can  use  them,  as  hogs  or  steers  transform  their  foods 
into  forms  that  can  be  used  by  the  trees.  Since  nearly  all 
plant-food  elements  must  go  through  this  process  before  they 
are  available  to  plants,  the  bacteria  are  vitally  necessary. 
When  these  bacteria  die,  their  bodies  are  consumed  by  the 
plants,  thus  leaving  no  plant  food  to  go  to  waste. 

Under  proper  conditions  the  soil  is  full  of  bacteria,  each 
handful  containing  millions.  The  most  successful  fruit-grower 
is  the  man  who  puts  the  soil  into  a  condition  favorable  to  these 
friendly  bacteria,  and  has  the  greatest  number  feeding  his 
trees  and  plants.  Too  much  water  will  destroy  the  friendly 
bacteria  and  prevent  their  coming  and  multiplying.  More- 
over, it  will  hasten  the  growth  of  myriads  of  bacteria  that  are 
injurious  to  plants. 

A  wet  soil  packs.  It  contains  little  air.  It  partakes  of  the 
nature  of  a  stone  or  piece  of  wood,  and  no  one  expects  trees 
to  derive  nourishment  from  these.  Favorable  conditions  help 
fruit  trees  to  thrive;  unfavorable  conditions  not  only  cut  off 
this  help,  but  aid  the  enemies  of  the  trees. 

The  subsoil  in  an  orchard  should  be  loosened  at  the  start, 
and  every  few  years  afterward.  This  is  discussed  in  detail 
later  in  this  book.  Drainage  helps  to  keep  the  soil  loose  as  low 
as  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  in  dry  seasons  this  loose  soil 
retains  more  moisture  than  packed  soil,  because  there  are  more 
open  spaces  to  hold  water. 

Drainage  improves  the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  has  the  effect 
of  making  it  more  fertile.  The  food  elements  in  mellow  soil 
can  be  used  by  the  trees,  while,  if  the  soil  is  caked,  the  roots  can- 
not get  the  food  that  is  there.  With  a  good  drainage  system, 
surplus  water  will  run  away  quickly  after  the  frost  is  out  of 
the  ground  in  the  spring,  and  the  soil  will  be  dry  enough  to 
work  much  earlier  than  land  not  underdrained.  Make  up 
your  mind  to  drain  at  the  start;  the  young  trees  need  it,  and 
the  work  can  be  done  more  easily  then. 

The  material  to  use  for  drains  depends  upon  circumstances. 
Study  the  lay  and  character  of  the  land,  secure  prices  on  dif- 
ferent materials  from  home  and  other  sources,  learn  about 
freight  rates  and  labor,  and  then  select  that  which  will  be 
cheapest  for  the  service  which  it  gives. 

In  very  loose  soil,  cement  drains  throughout  the  orchard 
have  been  known  to  pay.  Where  the  fall  is  more  than  one  foot 
in  one  hundred,  stone,  lumber  or  tile  will  be  satisfactory. 
A  buried  stone  wall  will  carry  off  the  water  where  there  is  a 
decided  fall;  but,  if  the  slope  is  less  than  one  foot  in  one  hun- 
dred, use  nothing  except  tile. 

The  bottoms  of  drains  should  be  at  least  two  feet  deep 
in  heavy  clay  and  three  feet  deep  in  sand.  They  should  be  as 

8 


TOO  LITTLE  WATER  IN  THE   SOIL 

deep  as  possible  and  still  catch  the  heavy  rains  before  they 
cause  surface  washing.  Whether  they  should  be  put  between 
every  row  of  trees,  between  every  two  or  three  rows,  or  only 
in  the  low  places,  depends  upon  how  much  water  must  be 
carried  away. 

Water  wants  to  run  downhill.  If  the  land  is  nearly  flat,  use 
a  level  to  find  an  outlet.  Usually  you  will  be  surprised  about 
the  fall.  Try  to  get  an  outlet  which  has  plenty  of  drop-way, 
but  it  is  better  to  drain  into  an  open  ditch  which  requires  care 
two  or  three  times  a  year  than  not  to  drain  at  all.  No  point 
in  the  drain  should  be  lower  than  the  outlet,  and  the  grade 
should  be  perfect — without  ups  and  downs.  A  fall  of  from 
three  to  six  inches  in  one  hundred  feet  will  give  good  service, 
but  with  so  slight  a  drop  you  should  use  a  surveyor's  level 
in  getting  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  right.  Drive  stakes  every 
fifty  or  one  hundred  feet,  having  the  tops  flush  with  the  ground, 
and  measure  the  depth  of  the  drain  from  these. 

A  six-inch  main  will  carry  off  the  water  from  a  twelve-acre 
field.  No  main  drains  should  be  smaller  than  five  inches. 
Laterals  should  be  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  inches  in 
diameter. 

Examine  the  mouths  of  all  drains  a  couple  of  times  a  year, 
to  keep  them  free  from  obstructions.  Put  wire  screening  over 
the  openings,  to  keep  out  animals,  frogs  and  snakes. 

It  is  well  to  plow  a  furrow,  every  fall,  midway  between  rows 
of  trees  where  there  is  no  drain.  This,  with  the  tiles  and  ditches, 
will  keep  the  orchard  during  the  winter  and  early  spring  in 
better  shape  than  an  orchard  where  the  snow  and  rain  fall 
on  the  even  surface. 

TOO  LITTLE  WATER 

Lack  of  water  during  May,  June  and  July  starves  more 
trees,  and  is  responsible  for  more  poor  fruit,  than  any  other 
cause.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  growers  do  not  realize  how 
much  water  a  tree  requires,  and  do  not  know  how  to  prevent 
the  waste  of  what  they  have.  Even  trees  near  a  hydrant  or 
pump  are  allowed  to  suffer,  while  a  few  gallons  of  water 
daily  would  enable  them  to  produce  a  heavy  crop. 

In  the  drier  sections  of  the  United  States,  trees  often  suffer 
least,  because  growers  there  know  how  to  keep  the  little  rain 
that  they  do  get.  In  all  the  eastern  and  central  states,  the 
rainfall  is  always  sufficient  to  produce  a  heavy  crop  of  leaves 
and  fruits.  Most  of  this  comes  in  the  winter  and  early  spring; 
the  problem  is  to  keep  it.  In  the  West,  irrigation  is  necessary, 
but  it  will  not  pay  in  the  East  unless  the  water  can  be  run  on 
the  land  easily.  Bulletin  No.  116  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  discusses  irrigation  at  length.  If  you 
want  to  put  water  on  your  land,  get  that  bulletin. 

A  few  growers  of  strawberries  have  used  "artificial  rain" 
profitably.  This  is  best  supplied  with  three-quarter  inch  iron 
pipes,  pierced  with  needle  holes  every  few  inches,  and  laid 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground;  or,  better,  elevated  out  of  the 


HOW  TO   GROW   AND   MARKET   FRUIT 

way.  With  the  pipe  on  supports,  a  fine  rain  will  fall  whenever 
the  water  is  turned  on. 

Plants  and  trees  require  from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred 
pounds  of  water  for  every  pound  of  dry  matter  grown.  But  that 
does  not  tell  whaf»  we  want  to  know — how  much  water  fruit 
trees  need.  The  following  statements  are  based  on  long  and 
careful  experiments  made  in  America,  England  and  Germany. 

Trees  use  water  in  two  ways — by  putting  it  into  fruit  and 
leaves,  and  by  evaporation  through  the  leaves.  A  stream  of 
water  constantly  flows  up  every  growing  tree  and  evaporates 
through  the  leaves. 

Apples  need  about  three  times  as  much  water  as  peaches, 
and  other  fruits  come  between  the  two.  To  grow  one  ton  of 
green  timothy  requires  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  tons 
of  water.  Apples  and  apple  leaves  are  more  juicy  than  timothy 
stalks.  If  we  take  one  hundred  barrels  (250  bushels)  of  apples 
as  the  yield  per  acre,  we  have  a  little  more  than  six  tons  of 
fruit.  The  leaves  and  new  wood  on  an  acre  would  weigh  at 
least  a  ton,  so  seven  tons  is  a  fair  average  of  the  weight  of  the 
orchard  product  from  one  acre. 

If  apples  use  water  at  the  same  rate  as  timothy,  the  trees 
on  one  acre  will  require  ten  hundred  and  fifty  tons  of  water, 
which  would  make  a  layer  more  than  nine  inches  deep. 

The  average  rainfall  between  March  and  August,  in  all 
fruit  regions  of  this  country  which  do  not  depend  upon  irriga- 
tion, varies  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches.  That  moisture 
which  comes  before  March  the  frozen  crust  prevents  from 
soaking  into  the  soil;  that  coming  after  August  is  of  no  use  to 
the  crop.  There  is  no  way  of  determining  how  much  evapo- 
rates from  the  soil  or  how  much  drains  away;  what  is  known 
is  that  nine  inches  must  be  kept  for  the  use  of  trees,  cr  the 
crop  will  suffer. 

Most  of  the  feeding  roots  of  fruit  trees  or  vines  are  in  the 
first  thirty-six  inches  of  soil.  Anchor  roots  go  deeper,  but 
gather  moisture  and  food  for  their  own  use  only.  This  thirty- 
six  inches  of  soil  must  be  loosened  so  it  will  contain  at  least 
a  foot  of  water,  for  allowance  must  be  made  for  evaporation 
throughout  the  summer.  The  first  three  feet  must  be  even 
looser  than  this,  as  the  soil  must  contain  a  certain  quantity 
of  air  for  the  use  of  the  roots.  In  other  words,  the  first  three 
feet  must  consist  of  one  foot  of  water  and  less  than  two  feet 
of  earth.  The  exact  number  of  inches  does  not  matter;  the 
principle  is  to  have  enough  water,  with  drainage  to  take  care 
of  the  surplus. 

The  soil  must  be  fine  and  loose;  fine,  because  the  smaller 
the  soil  particles  are,  the  more  water  will  cling  to  them;  loose 
down  deep,  because  the  particles  unite  when  they  are  packed, 
squeezing  the  water  out  and  preventing  it  from  circulating. 
Roots  will  not  grow  into  solid  masses  of  earth  when  they  can 
find  their  way  into  loose  soil. 

Still  another,  and  most  important,  reason  for  providing 
plenty  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  is  that  moisture  is  necessary  to 
make  the  plant  food  available.  The  amount  of  this  food  in 

10 


METHODS   OF  KEEPING   MOISTURE 

the  soil  does  not  indicate  how  much  plant  growth  that  soil 
will  produce.  Put  pure  nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphorus  on 
a  stone,  a  board  or  a  lump  of  dry  dirt,  and  the  heap  will  not 
produce  anything,  although  it  is  exceedingly  "rich  and  fertile." 
You  can  pile  fertilizer  upon  your  acres  by  the  ton,  but  you 
must  see  that  the  soil  is  in  a  receptive  condition  before  you 
can  hope  to  have  the  plant  foods  do  their  work. 

When  the  thirty-six  inches  of  soil  is  made  fine  enough  and 
loose  enough  to  hold  the  foot  of  water,  it  is  in  pretty  good  shape 
to  feed  the  roots.  The  water  which  surrounds  every  particle 
of  soil  dissolves  the  crude  elements,  finishing  the  work  of  the 
bacteria,  and  serves  foods  to  the  plants  in  digestible  form. 
Feeding  roots  need  not  touch  all  the  food;  if  the  water  can 
dissolve  the  food,  it  will  bring  it  to  the  roots  as  it  is  needed. 
Without  enough  moisture  the  soil  would  be  hard  and  un- 
friendly. Nothing  is  so  important  to  the  crop  as  water.  Every 
pint  lacking  means  the  loss  of  fruit. 

The  right  methods  make  it  easy  to  keep  all  the  water  neces- 
sary; with  wrong  methods,  or  no  method,  it  is  impossible  to 
have  enough,  unless  rain  falls  every  few  days  during  the  grow- 
ing season,  which  seldom  happens.  Unlike  other  essentials, 
the  keeping  of  the  necessary  moisture  does  not  cost  much, 
for  this  really  is  accomplished  by  work  that  should  be  done 
in  any  circumstances. 

Ground  that  is  hard  on  the  surface  and  undisturbed  below 
cannot  hold  two  inches  of  water  in  the  first  three  feet.  This 
would  be  too  little  even  for  peaches.  There  is  water  more  than 
three  feet  down,  of  course,  and  some  of  this  is  brought  up  by 
capillarity,  but  because  of  the  compact  earth  there  and  the 
distance  from  the  feeding  roots,  little  from  this  source  ever 
benefits  the  trees. 

Capillarity  is  the  attraction  which  some  substances  have 
for  others.  It  causes  a  drop  of  water  to  cling  to  or  run  along  the 
bottom  edge  of  a  slanting  board,  rather  than  fall  straight 
down.  It  makes  oil  follow  a  wick  up  to  a  flame.  Only  when 
capillarity  is  working  well  in  the  soil  can  evaporation  steal 
that  vital  nine  inches  of  water  from  you. 

The  example  of  the  lamp-wick  shows  another  force — the 
attraction  of  dryer  air  and  sunshine  for  soil  moisture.  These 
draw  up  water  constantly,  except  for  a  few  hours  during  nights 
when  heavy  dew  covers  the  ground.  Even  then  the  soil  con- 
tinues to  send  moisture  to  the  surface,  if  it  had  been  doing 
that  during  the  day,  and  the  air  must  continue  to  absorb  it, 
as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  a  wet  cloth  laid  on  the  ground 
during  a  damp  evening  will  dry  during  the  night. 

METHODS  OF  KEEPING  MOISTURE 

Professor  L.  H.  Bailey  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of 
New  York  has  explained  this  subject  so  plainly  that  any  one 
can  understand  it.  He  says: 

"How  shall  we  save  the  water?    By  holding  it  in  the  earth. 
If  the  soil  is  very  fine  and  yet  compact,  the  capillary  pores  or 

XI 


HOW  TO   GROW  AND   MARKET  FRUIT 

small  open  spaces  between  particles  will  hold  enormous  quan- 
tities of  water.  If,  then,  we  break  up  these  open  spaces  on  the 
surface  next  the  atmosphere,  we  shall  prevent  the  water  from 
passing  off  by  evaporation. 

"The  whole  subject  of  saving  moisture,  therefore,  falls 
into  two  means.  The  catching  and  holding  of  it  (or  the  making 
of  a  reservoir),  and  the  prevention  of  evaporation.  The  first 
thing  to  do,  therefore,  is  to  plow  or  loosen  up  the  soil  and  sub- 
soil to  a  sufficient  depth.  When  we  have  the  water,  we  must 
then  work  the  surface  in  such  a  way  that  we  can  keep  it. 

"It  will  thus  be  seen  how  useless  it  is  to  try  to  save  the 
water  by  beginning  tillage  when  a  drought  is  threatened.  If 
the  land  has  not  been  prepared,  there  will  be  little  water  to 
save  by  that  time.  It  will  either  have  soaked  away  through 
the  soil  into  drains,  or  it  will  have  evaporated  long  before  the 
need  of  it  was  noticed. 

"The  hardpan  may  be  so  near  the  surface  that  but  little 
water  will  stay  in  the  soil.  The  dish-pan  formed  by  it  is  so 
shallow  that  the  spring  and  early  summer  rains  make  mud 
puddles  on  the  surface  and  pass  off  before  the  water  is  needed 
by  the  trees.  Such  soil  needs  to  be  plowed  very  deeply,  and 
the  subsoil  broken  up  to  increase  the  storage  capacity  for 
water. 

"If  the  soil  is  sandy,  soft  and  leachy,  shallow  breaking  up 
is  the  thing  needed.  Such  soil  may  be  loosened  too  much. 
The  water-storage  capacity  of  soils  may  be  increased  by  mixing 
humus  or  vegetable  matter  with  them.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
that  the  methods  of  conserving  or  saving  moisture  for  the  time 
when  it  is  needed  by  the  trees  or  plants  must  be  thought  out 
and  worked  out  by  each  grower  for  his  own  place. 

"Any  body  or  substance  which  is  interposed  between  the 
air  and  moist  soil  will  prevent  evaporation  of  the  moisture. 
The  ground  is  moist  underneath  a  board,  so  is  it  underneath 
a  layer  of  sawdust  or  of  ashes;  and  so  is  it  underneath  a  layer 
of  two  or  three  inches  of  fine,  dry  earth.  Shallow  cultivation 
will  make  a  mulch  of  this  kind  on  the  surface.  The  orchardist 
should  work  the  land  as  often  as  it  begins  to  get  hard  and 
crusted — as  a  fit  statement,  it  may  be  said  that  fruit  lands 
ought  to  be  worked  every  ten  days,  also  after  every  rain,  before 
a  crust  forms.  Land  allowed  to  lie  bare  over  winter  will  weather 
rapidly,  but  clay-lands  of  a  lighter  nature  will  gully  badly.'* 

Land  which  lies  rough-ploughed  over  winter  will  take  up  lots 
of  water,  but  no  more  than  it  will  if  it  is  covered  with  crimson 
clover,  peas,  vetch,  rye,  or  any  other  cover  crop,  and  these 
crops  have  many  other  invaluable  advantages.  Cover  crops 
save  moisture.  They  must  be  put  in  during  July;  then,  by  the 
time  the  plants  begin  to  draw  water,  the  trees  do  not  need  it, 
in  fact,  should  be  checked.  Then,  if  the  crop  is  of  a  kind  not 
killed  by  the  winter,  it  will  grow  up  very  rank  in  the  spring 
and  help  dry  off  the  land  early  by  absorbing  water.  It  always 
must  be  plowed  under  early  in  spring — about  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  fit  to  work — or  it  will  rob  the  trees  of  water  and 
food,  and  do  much  more  damage  than  it  does  good. 

12 


Home  fruit  and  flower  garden  worth  twenty  times  its  cost.  Dwarf  trees  are  most  suitable. 


Clover  as  soil  improvement  and  cover  crop.    Note  superior  care  given  young  trees. 

:•&        '  ~~ 


Stone  wall  buried  here,  providing  drainage.   Orchard  of  W.  J.  Lewis  &  Bro.,  Pittston,  Pa. 


Harrison  Ray  peach  orchard,  August.   Left:   Cover  crop.    Right:  Asparagus  inter-crop. 

13 


Beans  as  inter-  and  cover-crop  among  apples.  Gives  soil  improvement  and  cash  returns. 


Strawberries  as  inter-crop  among  apple  trees.    This  orchard  is  irrigated. 


Action  of  proper  charge  of  dynamite  correctly  placed  for  subsoiling  (and  sometimes  for 
digging  tree  holes).  Ground  heaved,  not  thrown  out  and  scattered. 

14 


METHODS  OF   KEEPING   MOISTURE 

To  put  soil  into  shape  to  store  water,  subsoiling  should  be 
done  thoroughly  before  trees  are  planted,  and  every  couple  of 
years  afterward  until  they  are  ten  years  old.  If  it  is  done  with 
a  plow,  the  first  subsoiling  the  year  before  trees  are  planted 
should  cover  the  whole  area;  at  the  next,  the  'year  after  the 
trees  are  planted,  a  four-foot  strip  should  be  left  where  trees 
are,  and  later  the  plowing  should  be  narrower  each  time  until 
the  last  time  only  one  or  two  subsoil  furrows  should  be  plowed 
midway  between  tree  rows.  Subsoil  plowing  helps  greatly 
to  hold  moisture,  but  there  are  other  reasons  for  doing  it. 
Subsoiling  with  dynamite  is  a  thoroughly  practical  method, 
and  should  be  employed  on  three-fourths  of  the  farms  of  the 
East. 

An  underdrain  midway  between  tree  rows  wonderfully 
helps  the  soil  to  store  moisture  by  keeping  the  earth  porous 
and  fine.  During  the  winter  and  spring  the  surplus  water 
sinks  into  the  earth  to  the  level  of  the  drain,  where  it  falls, 
then  finds  its  way  horizontally  to  the  drain.  In  doing  this 
it  opens  and  makes  fine  the  soil  it  passes  through,  and  the 
spaces  remain  filled  with  water  until  the  roots  draw  it  out. 

Another  moisture  holder  is  humus.  Decaying  grass  stalks 
always  are  damp,  and  they,  too,  loosen  the  soil.  Earth  which 
is  full  of  them  seldom  becomes  so  dry  as  pure  clay  or  sand. 
Pure  loam  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  humus.  Mulches  of 
all  kinds  plowed  under  will  fill  the  soil  with  moisture-retaining 
material,  and  at  the  same  time  will  make  it  more  and  more 
loamy.  A  heavy,  stiff  clay  can  be  almost  transformed  in  this 
way,  because  the  moisture  helps  to  disintegrate  the  cruder 
earth  into  loose  loam.  Humus  helps  to  drain  away  the  sur- 
plus water,  and  helps  to  hold  that  necessary  nine  inches. 

By  far  the  best  way  to  loosen  subsoil  is  with  dynamite. 
This  is  not  generally  known,  but  orchardists  will  find  they  can 
reduce  tillage  expenses  greatly  and  save  much  time  with  it. 
The  exploding  of  from  a  sixth  to  a  half  pound  of  the  right 
kind,  two  or  three  feet  under  the  surface,  loosens  and  makes 
fine  all  the  soil.  Young  trees  will  make  great  strides  if  they 
are  planted  in  dynamited  holes. 

The  dynamiting  can  be  done  in  orchards  or  about  trees  of 
any  age.  If  done  rightly,  it  will  accomplish  the  work  without 
breaking  or  tearing  away  any  roots,  leaving  the  soil  in  con- 
dition to  give  the  roots  twice  the  feeding-ground  they  had 
before  and  providing  perfect  drainage  and  water-storing  capac- 
ity. The  use  of  dynamite  is  the  secret  of  success  in  growing 
fruit  by  mulching  systems  without  so  much  plow  and  harrow 
tillage.  This  is  the  only  way  known  by  which  soil  can  be  loosened 
deeply  after  trees  fill  the  space  with  roots,  and  often  it  is  the 
cheapest  and  quickest  way  to  loosen  it  at  any  time.  Heavy 
clay  lands  are  handled  especially  well  by  this  method;  in  sand 
the  advantages  are  least.  With  only  plowing  and  drainage 
to  rely  on,  one  thorough  subsoiling  has  to  last  during  the  life 
of  the  orchards.  Good  results  can  be  depended  upon  for  many 
years,  but  when  signs  point  to  the  soil  becoming  too  compact, 
dynamite  will  loosen  it  up  as  easily  as  at  first,  even  though 

IS 


HOW  TO   GROW  AND   MARKET   FRUIT 

the  trees  are  large.    See  further  information  about  dynamite 
on  pages  34  and  37. 

A  mulch  of  some  kind  (dust,  dead  grass,  weeds,  etc.)  is 
needed  to  insulate  the  moisture  from  the  air.  In  all  sections 
where  the  raintall  between  March  to  August  does  not  exceed 
from  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches,  tillage  and  cover  crops  are 
test  adapted  to  retain  moisture.  The  land  should  be  plowed 
in  April  or  May,  turning  under  the  cover  crop,  then  gone  over 
immediately  with  a  Cutaway,  spring-tooth  or  Acme  harrow, 
and  then  harrowed  with  spike-tooth  every  eight  or  ten  days 
until  in  July.  The  new  cover  crop  should  be  sown  in  July, 
partly  to  use  the  remaining  moisture.  The  trees  do  not  need 
water  after  that  time.  They  should  begin  then  to  ripen  wood 
and  fruit. 

Only  two  or  three  harrowings  with  the  spring-tooth  are 
needed.  The  teeth  should  go  about  three  inches  deep,  and  a 
leveler-drag  should  be  attached  to  the  harrow.  For  the  remain- 
ing times  use  a  spike-tooth  harrow.  A  roller  should  be  used 
but  little,  except  on  very  light  soil,  and  should  be  followed 
at  once  by  a  smoothing  harrow.  A  day  or  so  after  every  rain, 
harrow  to  break  the  crust,  even  if  you  had  finished  just  before 
the  rain.  Never  allow  a  baked  crust  to  form,  for  it  will  quickly 
suck  the  water  out  of  the  soil  beneath. 

The  whole  idea,  so  far  as  moisture  is  concerned,  is  to  keep 
a  layer  of  dust-dry,  powdered  soil  two  to  three  inches  deep  on 
the  surface  all  the  time.  As  it  is  not  handy  to  dig  around  each 
tree  every  time  you  harrow,  and  impossible  to  harrow  with 
any  satisfaction  closer  to  a  tree  than  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches, 
a  heavy  mulch  of  leaves,  straw  or  dead  grass  should  be  placed 
around  each  tree.  Young  trees  especially  need  this,  since 
they  have  small  root  systems,  and  the  soil  right  where  they 
stand  dries  out  quickly.  This  mulch  is  a  great  labor-saver, 
and  does  the  work  well. 

In  sections  where  the  rainfall  from  March  to  August  is  as 
much  as  twenty  inches,  the  sod  mulch  system  is,  without  doubt, 
the  best  way  of  taking  care  of  the  moisture  problem  in  an 
orchard.  The  essence  of  this  system  is  to  grow  between  the 
trees  enough  grass  to  nearly  supply  the  trees  with  plant  food 
when  it  decays.  A  little  commercial  fertilizer  is  added.  No 
part  of  the  grass  is  taken  away.  It  is  mowed  two  or  three 
times  a  season  and  most  of  the  cutting  raked  up  and  piled 
under  the  trees.  Sometimes  this  mulch  is  eighteen  inches  deep 
under  the  trees  and  for  a  few  feet  outside  in  a  circle,  although 
over  the  rest  of  the  ground  an  inch  or  two  is  all  that  should 
be  left.  The  ground  under  it  always  is  moist.  Each  season's 
growth  is  worked  into  the  surface  of  the  soil  by  frost  and  water 
(or  by  a  cutaway  harrow)  thus  providing  another  moisture 
holder.  It  is  in  connection  with  a  complete  sod  mulch  system 
that  dynamite  is  most  valuable,  in  ways  any  grower  can  see, 
for  the  ground  never  is  plowed  or  torn  up. 

At  least  six  inches  of  water  are  needed  to  grow  this  ^heavy 
crop  of  erass,  hence  no  less  than  eighteen  inches  of  rain  will 
be  enough  for  a  mulch  sod  system.  If  the  grass  contains  much 

16 


METHODS   OF   KEEPING   MOISTURE 

clover,  more  water  will  be  needed.  Care  must  be  used  in  dry 
sections  and  seasons  to  mow  the  grass  sufficiently  early  in 
spring,  and  to  keep  it  mowed  more  or  less  close  to  prevent  it 
drawing  too  much  water  from  the  soil.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  necessary  eighteen  inches  or  more  of  rainfall  must 
come  between  the  spring  breakup  and  August  i,  and  not  in 
a  whole  year.  This  method  certainly  takes  less  work  than 
cultivation.  It  should  be  considered  by  every  one  where  con- 
ditions warrant  its  use.  Thorough  underdrainage  should 
accompany  it. 

SUMMARY 

Trees  must  not  have  wet  feet.  The  level  of  stagnant  water 
in  soil  must  be,  at  the  very  least,  two  or  three  feet  down,  if 
trees  are  to  bear  worth  while. 

Too  much  water  destroys  friendly  bacteria  that  are  necessary 
to  put  plant  foods  into  forms  in  which  trees  can  use  them. 

Too  much  water  renders  plant  food  useless  by  changing  it 
chemically  and  by  caking  soil. 

Carefully  laid  underdrains  are  almost  an  orchard  necessity, 
and  do  good  in  many  ways. 

Breaking  up  hardpan  helps  drainage.  Cover  crops  help  to 
dry  off  land  in  early  spring. 

Apple  trees  must  have  at  least  enough  water  to  make  a  layer 
a  foot  deep,  and  this  must  be  held  in  the  top  thirty-six  inches 
of  soil.  Other  fruits  can  get  along  with  slightly  less,  but  must 
have  enough. 

Too  little  water  starves  trees  directly  by  allowing  them  to 
dry  up,  and  to  even  a  greater  extent  by  making  it  impossible 
for  roots  to  get  the  food  in  the  soil.  Plant  foods  and  fertilizers  are 
of  no  use  unless  they  continually  are  accompanied  by  enough 
moisture  to  dissolve  them  and  insure  that  they  soak  to  the  roots. 

There  is  always  enough  rainfall  between  March  and  August 
to  grow  big  crops,  if  it  is  rightly  conserved.  Right  methods 
make  this  easy,  wrong  methods  make  it  impossible. 

To  store  enough  water,  ground  must  be  broken  up  deeply, 
thoroughly  and  often;  and  to  avoid  its  escape  the  surface 
must  be  worked  and  kept  in  a  dust  mulch,  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion during  the  growing  season,  if  other  mulch  is  not  used.  This 
conservation  tillage  must  begin  early  in  spring,  while  ground  is 
still  damp,  and  must  be  done  every  ten  days  or  after  every  rain 
till  in  July  or  August. 

Organic  matter  in  the  soil  helps  to  hold  moisture. 

With  sod-mulch  systems,  the  grass  must  be  mowed  often  to 
prevent  its  using  up  the  moisture  intended  to  be  saved. 


Feeding  Fruit  Trees 

PROFESSOR  BAILEY  has  put  so  many  of  the  facts  of  this 
subject  into  clear  and  lucid  words  that  he  deserves  to 
be  quoted  freely.  In  stating  the  situation  he  says  this: 

"Any  land  which  is  fit  for  the  growing  of  crops  will  main- 
tain a  fruit  plantation  throughout  its  existence  without  the 
addition  of  plant-food,  and  enable  the  trees  to  produce  at  the 
same  time  a  normal  quantity  of  fruit.  But  the  profit  in  fruit- 
growing lies  in  securing  the  extra  quantity  and  superior  qual- 
ity, and  this  result  demands  fertilizing  of  the  land  and  every 
other  good  care.  The  extra  quality  and  extra  quantity  seem 
to  depend  a  great  deal  on  the  fertility  we  supply." 

When  we  remove  fifteen  or  more  bushels  of  fruit  from  a 
tree  every  year,  we  are  going  beyond  "normal  quantities," 
and  additional  plant-food  will  be  required  because  of  this. 
Nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potash  are  the  principal  foods  on 
which  fruit  trees  live.  A  few  other  minerals,  almost  always 
present,  enter  into  their  diet,  but  in  quantities  so  small  that 
they  may  be  overlooked.  The  soil  is  the  table  at  which  they 
eat,  while  water  and  tillage,  sunlight  and  air,  are  the  cooks. 
Each  food  must  be  supplied  in  the  right  quantity,  in  the  right 
proportion  with  others,  and  in  the  right  way,  if  the  trees  are 
to  thrive. 

Food  elements  must  be  given  in  the  right  condition,  as 
partly  explained  in  the  talk  on  moisture,  or  trees  cannot  con- 
sume them.  Hay,  raw  meat,  or  raw  and  unground  grain  con- 
tain all  the  elements  needed  for  men,  but  men  would  not  thrive 
on  them.  It  is  just  as  important  to  "grind  and  cook"  the 
nitrogen,  potash  and  phosphorus  for  trees  as  it  is  to  grind 
and  cook  meat  and  wheat  for  yourself.  We  cannot  make  fruit 
out  of  plant-food  elements  until  they  are  refined. 

Now,  to  grind  and  cook  and  refine  plant-food  elements,  we 
must  have  them  dissolved  in  water.  Carry  them  in  soil  that 
is  just  as  fine  as  it  can  be  made,  and  that  contains  no  acids 
which  work  harmful  results.  We  get  them  dissolved  by  saving 
enough  moisture  for  use  at  the  right  time.  To  have  them 
distributed  well  through  fine  soil,  tillage  or  other  subduing 
methods  must  be  employed. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  earth,  all  soil  was  rock.  Gradually 
this  was  worn  down,  until  moss  and  plants  got  a  foothold, 
grew  and  died,  mixing  their  dead  leaves  and  stalks  with  ^the 
coarse  soil  year  after  year  until  now  there  is  much  fine,  silky 
loam.  The  hardest  soils  are  the  same  as  the  best,  except  that 
the  lumpy  or  sticky  ones  have  not  had  as  much  treatment 
from  water,  air  and  sun  as  the  better  kinds.  This  explains 
why  the  kind  of  soil  never  is  very  important  so  long  as  proper 
care  is  taken. 

Bailey  explains  soil  processes  in  this  way:  "Nature  is  a 
kindly  and  solicitous  mother.  She  knows  that  the  elements 
must  be  unlocked  and  worked  over  and  digested  by  the  roots 
of  plants.  Plant  tissues  add  fiber  and  richness  to  the  land, 

18 


Left:  Newly-set  strawberry  field,  across  rows.    Right:  Ground  prepared  for  asparagus. 


Tomatoes  as  inter-crop  in  combined  apple  and  peach  orchard.    Splendid  inter-crop. 


Sod-mulch  system  in  apple  orchard.    Left:  Grass  mowed  and  left  under  trees. 


Sod-mulch — wet  season,  grass  left  grow  high.    Seven-year  trees  of  W.  J.  Lewis  &  Bro. 

19 


Orchard  back  next  woods  yields  $2,000  net  per  year.   Bad  location  considering  insects. 


Three-year  trees  of  W.  J.  Lewis  &  Bro.    Note  apples  on  tree  (Stayman  Winesap) 


Left:  Five-year  tree  in  Harrison  orchard,  bearing  388  apples.  Right:  Clean  cultivation. 


How  to  handle  sod-mulch  system  with  young  trees.  Note  mulch  is  pulled  back  from  trunk. 

20 


LIME   ACTION   IS   VITALLY   NEEDED 

and  make  it  amenable  to  all  the  revivifying  influences  of  sun 
and  rain  and  air  and  warmth.  The  plant  is  copartner  with 
the.  weather  in  the  building  of  the  primal  soils.  The  lichen 
spreads  its  thin  substance  over  the  rock,  sending  its  fibers 
into  the  crevices  and  filling  the  chinks,  as  they  enlarge,  with 
the  decay  of  its  own  structure;  and  finally  the  rock  is  fit  for  the 
moss  or  fern  or  creeping  vine,  each  newcomer  leaving  its  im- 
press by  which  some  later  newcomer  may  profit.  Finally  the 
rock  is  disintegrated  and  pulverized,  and  is  ready  to  be  still 
further  subdued  by  corn  and  ragweed,  by  other  plants,  or 
trees." 

Thus  it  becomes  plain  that  to  feed  our  trees  we  first  must 
work  our  ground — tear  it  up  deeply  and  thoroughly  pulverize 
it.  We  must  fill  it  full  of  dead  grass  and  leaves  in  order  to 
change  its  texture — to  change  that  old  rock  nature  to  loam 
nature.  This  must  be  done  to  give  roots  a  chance  to  take  up 
any  food  the  soil  carries.  The  soil  itself  never  is  food  for  plants. 

This  is  where  all  processes  work  together.  To  conserve 
moisture,  we  work  the  land.  To  drain,  we  work  the  land.  To 
do  both  of  these,  we  use  dynamite  and  heavy  mulches.  When 
we  save  or  get  rid  of  water,  we  grind  and  mix  the  soil,  which 
is  exactly  the  treatment  the  soil  needs  to  improve  its  texture. 
So  far,  so  good;  but  often,  to  get  enough  fineness  and  mixing, 
the  treatment  has  to  be  continued  after  it  could  be  stopped 
so  far  as  moisture  is  concerned. 

LIME  ACTION 

We  should  like  to  say  here,  "The  decay  of  vegetable  and 
animal  matter  produces  some  acids."  That  statement  would 
be  clear  to  most  people,  but  it  is  not  correct.  There  is  no  such 
thing  as  decay  of  these  organic  materials.  Wherever  a  piece 
of  meat,  a  stalk  of  grass  or  a  leaf  is  touched  by  moisture  in 
or  on  the  ground,  millions  of  bacteria  attack  it.  They  swarm 
to  it  from  every  surrounding  particle  of  earth,  and  feed  upon  it 
until  seemingly  it  disappears.  In  reality  it  does  not  disappear, 
but  is  changed  into  other  forms  by  the  bacteria,  helped  to  a 
slight  extent  by  the  chemical  action  of  minerals.  The  work 
of  bacteria  is  like  that  of  the  buzzards,  which  gather  from  every- 
where and  consume  a  dead  body. 

Organic  matter  is  added  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  manures, 
leaves,  rotting  fruit,  plowed-down  cover  crops,  grass  and 
weeds,  mulches,  bone  phosphate,  etc.  In  consuming  these, 
bacteria  produce  acids.  These  acids  change  plant-food  from 
available  into  insoluble  forms,  kill  the  bacteria  which  produced 
them  and  which  are  needed,  and  in  other  ways  hinder  or  pre- 
vent plant  growth. 

Organic  matter  is  necessary,  yet  we  must  get  rid  of  the  acids. 
Lime  is  the  thing  to  do  it  with.  The  action  of  lime  is  called 
sweetening.  The  work  lime  does  is  to  deaden  the  acids  by 
taking  away  their  "edge,"  making  them  incapable  of  doing 
harm.  Wet  soils  generally  are  especially  acid. 

The  wood  of  fruit  trees  contains  lime,  in  a  form  almost 

21 


HOW  TO   GROW  AND   MARKET   FRUIT 

pure.  Leaves  and  fruit  have  only  a  trace,  but  fruit  will  grow  and 
mature  in  a  shorter  time,  and  therefore  ripen  earlier,  or  rather 
more  completely  and  uniformly,  when  trees  have  plenty  of  lime 
than  it  will  when  they  do  not.  The  fruit  also  is  likely  to  have 
a  higher  color.  For  these  reasons,  lime  can  be  said  to  have  a 
small  food  value.  It  can  hardly  be  classed  with  the  foods, 
however,  and  its  chief  value  comes  indirectly. 

Lime  should  be  worked  into  the  surface  of  the  ground — 
never  plowed  under.  Harrow  or  disk  it  in.  It  should  be  put 
on  evenly,  with  a  lime  spreader  or  drill  whenever  possible. 
On  sod,  even  distribution  over  surface  is  all  that  is  needed. 
It  may  go  on  at  any  time  in  the  year,  but  better  avoid  the 
months  from  July  until  November,  as  then  it  might,  by  re- 
leasing insoluble  plant  food,  result  in  forcing  fall  growth 
of  trees — a  bad  thing  always.  From  500  to  1,000  pounds  to 
the  acre,  16  to  35  bushels,  will  produce  a  good  effect  on  light 
land.  Generally  it  is  profitable  to  use  a  ton  or  more,  say  50  to 
80  bushels,  on  an  acre  of  heavy  land.  The  amount  to  use 
depends  on  the  kind  of  soil.  The  amount  of  humus  in  the  soil 
largely  determines  the  amount  of  lime  to  use.  Light  land  will 
be  burned  by  using  more  than  20  to  25  bushels.  With  heavy 
clover  or  other  sod  to  act  upon,  you  can  use  lime  more  liber- 
ally. 

Pulverized  lime  usually  is  the  best  form  in  which  to  buy  and 
use  lime.  Lump  lime,  air-slaked  in  piles,  or  new-process  lime, 
which  is  lump  lime  slaked  by  steam,  are  good  also,  although  only 
90  per  cent  as  efficient,  and  twice  as  heavy  and  twice  as  bulky. 
A  pound  of  ground  limestone  will  do  half  the  work  of  a  pound 
of  lime.  In  using  ground  limestone,  there  is  more  than  double 
the  weight  to  handle.  The  best  form  in  which  to  buy  depends 
on  three  things — the  cost  to  you,  the  freight  to  your  field,  and 
the  efficiency,  or  "strength,"  of  what  you  get. 

Every  orchardist  must  learn  the  supreme  importance  of 
serving  food  to  his  trees  on  a  table  properly  laid.  Trees  are 
particular.  By  continued  study  of  actual  conditions,  and  by 
accumulating  outside  information,  every  one  can  learn  what 
to  do  to  put  his  soil  into  the  right  shape. 

SUPPLYING  PLANT  FOOD 

In  feeding  trees,  the  first  things  to  consider,  after  putting 
the  soil  into  the  best  shape  possible,  are  the  needs  of  your 
particular  orchard.  No  two  pieces  of  land  are  alike.  Wide 
differences  often  will  be  found  within  a  hundred  yards,  and 
these  varying  conditions  call  for  the  food  elements  in  varying 
proportions. 

When  trees  have  dark  leaves,  bright-colored  bark,  and  grow 
a  foot  or  more  of  new  wood  each  year,  they  are  getting  about 
enough  nitrogen,  and  all  you  have  to  do  is  to  keep  the  supply 
at  the  present  rate.  It  is  possible  to  provide  too  much  nitro- 
gen, especially  in  bearing  orchards.  Trees  are  suffering  from 
a  lack  of  nitrogen  when  the  leaves  are  light-colored  and  when 
they  ripen  and  fall  early  in  autumn,  when  the  bark  is  dull 

22 


HOW    TO    SUPPLY    PLANT    FOODS 

and  dark,  and  when  the  new  wood  each  season  is  less  than  a 
foot  long. 

Lack  of  potash  and  of  lime  is  shown  by  sappy  growth,  by 
many  suckers,  and  by  pale,  tasteless,  unripe  fruit.  Fruit  trees 
use  less  of  phosphorus  than  of  the  other  food  elements — • 
probably  only  one-fifth  of  the  number  of  pounds  and  of  the 
value  of  it,  as  of  nitrogen,  and  one-sixth,  as  of  potash.  Phos- 
phorus goes  into  fruit,  leaves  and  wood.  Potash  is  the  most 
important  of  the  elements.  Potash  and  phosphorus  are  min- 
eral materials,  and  have  to  be  supplied  in  chemical  form.  Nitro- 
gen is  supplied  best  by  legumes — by  the  cover  crops. 

Cover  crops  should  be  called  "fertility  crops,"  for,  while 
they  are  useful  in  preventing  washing  and  leaching,  cement- 
ing and  baking,  and  in  the  holding  of  moisture,  their  greatest 
value  lies  in  their  power  to  add  directly  to  the  richness  of  the 
soil.  Some  of  the  plants  adapted  to  the  purpose  supply  nitro- 
gen, and  all  supply  organic  matter — supply  these  materials 
cheaper  than  they  can  be  had  from  any  other  source.  The 
aim  in  sowing  a  cover  crop  is  to  plant  it  long  enough  before 
killing  frost  to  enable  it  to  make  a  good,  thick  growth  in  the 
fall.  If  the  plant  is  one  that  winter-kills,  this  makes  little  dif- 
ference; but,  if  it  grows  again  in  the  spring,  more  vegetable 
matter  will  be  had  before  time  to  plow  it  down. 

The  stalks,  leaves  and  roots  add  several  tons  of  organic 
matter  to  the  soil.  This  is  placed  right  where  it  will  do  the 
most  good — in  the  upper  foot  of  soil, — whether  the  crop  is 
plowed  under  or  disked  in.  It  does  its  work,  as  has  been  ex- 
plained before,  by  improving  the  texture  of  the  earth,  by  hold- 
ing moisture,  by  making  a  home  for  bacteria,  and  by  returning 
to  the  soil  the  plant-foods  which  it  gathered  through  its  roots, 
together  with  new  nitrogen  gathered  by  the  leaves. 

All  the  legumes  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air,  and  store  it 
in  every  fiber  of  the  plant.  One  good  clover,  pea  or  vetch 
crop  will  give  your  acre  as  much  of  this  high-priced  plant-food 
as  you  will  get  in  $20  worth  of  any  commercial  fertilizer.  Le- 
gumes use  potash  and  phosphorus,  of  course,  but  they  do  not 
waste  it  if  they  are  left  on  the  land — they  return  it  whence 
it  came.  This  is  true  of  all  cover-crop  plants.  The  foods  which 
they  consume  are  only  loaned  to  them  over  winter.  In  the 
spring  all  the  materials  come  back  for  the  use  of  the  trees, 
with  added  nitrogen  in  the  case  of  legumes,  and  with  pro- 
tection and  physical  soil  improvement  from  all  kinds  of  cover 
plants. 

A  cover  crop  is  sown  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer,  when 
trees  have  made  their  growth  for  the  year,  and  when  both 
fruit  and  trees  have  begun  to  ripen.  Newly  sown  plants  take 
up  water  in  great  amounts — take  it  away  from  the  trees.  This 
is  the  thing  desired  at  this  time,  for  tree  growth  needs  a 
check  tl:en.  But,  still  better,  young  plants  require  a  great  deal 
of  nitrogen,  but  comparatively  less  potash  and  phosphorus. 
As  the  cover  crop  grows,  it  feeds  largely  on  the  nitrogen,  less 
on  the  other  elements,  leaving  much  potash  and  phosphorus 
for  the  trees,  just  when  they  need  them  most. 

23 


HOW  TO  GROW  AND   MARKET   FRUIT 

It  is  potash  and  phosphorus  which  put  color  in  fruit, 
which  give  it  the  rich  flavor,  and  which  harden  the  wood  of 
trees  so  they  can  stand  zero  weather.  We  build  the  framework 
and  size  of  our  apples  or  peaches  or  grapes  with  nitrogen,  but 
we  put  the  high  quality  in  them  with  the  two  other  foods,  and 
to  a  slight  extent  with  lime.  In  this,  when  analyzed,  lies  the 
explanation  of  why  a  sod-mulched  tree  will  put  a  higher  color 
on  its  fruit  than  a  cultivated  one;  also  why  a  cultivated  tree 
generally  is  the  larger.  Sod-mulched  orchards  generally,  com- 
paratively speaking,  lack  nitrogen,  and  have  plenty  of  potash 
and  phosphorus,  while  in  cultivated  orchards  this  condition 
is  likely  to  be  reversed,  or  has  that  tendency  unless  corrected. 

In  our  judgment,  the  orcharding  system  best  to  use  is  the 
one  that  will  combine  the  good  points  of  these  two  methods, 
giving  trees  or  plants  the  growing  material — nitrogen — in 
the  greatest  proportions  before  July,  and  the  ripening  and 
quality  producing  materials — potash  and  phosphorus — later. 

While  cover  crops  absorb  plant-food  in  the  fall,  they  are 
doing  another  good  act.  The  food  they  use  generally  is  in 
available  form;  that  is,  ready  dissolved,  in  solution.  If  it  were 
to  be  left  in  this  shape  over  winter,  much  of  it  would  leach 
away;  but,  when  the  cover  plants  use  it,  they  lock  it  up  until 
spring,  and  so  prevent  its  waste. 

These  are  the  principal  reasons  why  cover  crops  are  so 
valuable  in  orcharding.  Each  man  must  study  his  own  situa- 
tion, decide  what  his  trees  need,  and  plan  the  best  and  cheapest 
way  to  get  these  materials.  The  best  sources  of  the  needed 
plant-foods  will  be  found  now  in  one  form  of  the  elements, 
again  in  another.  Even  one  kind  of  cover  crop  will  not  do, 
year  after  year,  so  well  as  rotation  of  them. 

Again  Bailey  has  stated  a  point  so  clearly  that  we  can  not 
do  better  than  quote  him:  "The  choice  of  the  proper  crop 
for  the  covering  of  an  orchard  is  a  local  matter,  the  same  as 
the  determination  of  the  method  of  tillage  or  the  kind  of  fer- 
tilizer is.  There  is  no  one  cover  crop  which  is  best  for  all  pur- 
poses and  all  conditions.  The  grower  must  study  the  condi- 
tion of  his  trees  and  his  land,  and  then  judge  as  best  he  may 
what  course  he  shall  pursue. 

"Nature's  cover  crops,  at  least  upon  farms,  are  weeds,  and 
these  may  be  useful  if  allowed  to  grow  in  the  fall  after  the 
tillage  is  completed.  The  difficulty  is  that  they  cannot  always 
be  relied  upon  to  cover  the  land  at  the  time  when  they  are 
wanted,  most  of  them  do  not  live  through  the  winter,  and  they 
are  very  likely  to  become  a  serious  nuisance.  It  is  therefore 
best  to  substitute  some  other  plant  for  the  weeds. 

"In  the  question  of  the  choice  of  cover  crops,  the  grower 
must  remember  that  there  are  two  great  classes  in  respect 
to  their  power  to  gather  nitrogen.  The  one  class  is  non-legu- 
minous, comprising  those  plants  which  take  only  such  nitrogen 
as  has  already  been  worked  over  into  available  form  by  plants 
and  animals;  the  other  class  is  the  leguminous  plants,  com- 
prising those  which  have  the  power  of  appropriating  and 
utilizing  free  nitrogen. 

24 


Strawberries  as  paying  inter-crop     Apple  trees  two  years  old,  bearing  a  few  apples. 


Tomato  crop  raised  in  this  young  orchard  will  be  worth  $60  an  acre  net  each  year. 


Plank  drag  that  does  great  work  in  conserving  moisture.    Useful  for  many  crops. 


Clean  cultivation,  proper  heading  of  trees  and  good  orchard  arrangement  of  trees, 

25 


Left:  Five-year  tree  planted  In  ordinary  dug  hole.    Right:  Five-year  tree  not  fifty  yards 
away,  planted  in  dynamited  hole.  Pole  eight  feet  high. 


Diagonal  planting  plan,  with  fillers.    No.  i  trees,  permanent;  No.  2  trees,  to  be  removed 
when  10  to  12  years  old;  No.  3  trees,  to  be  removed  when  18  or  20  years  old. 


In  South,  heel-in  like  this,  but  in  North  cover  tops  and  all  with  dirt — use  no  straw,  or 
mice  will  nest  there  and  chew  trees. 

26 


HOW    TO    SUPPLY    PLANT    FOODS 

"For  purposes  of  cover  and  protection,  the  non-leguminous 
crops  may  be  just  as  good  as  the  nitrogen  gatherers,  and  when 
the  fruit  trees  or  plants  are  growing  very  vigorously  they  may 
be  decidedly  better  than  the  others,  because,  by  not  adding 
nitrogen,  they  do  not  over-stimulate  the  growth.  A  rotation 
of  cover  crops  will  nearly  always  be  found  to  be  important. 
It  is  perfectly  possible  to  put  so  much  nitrogen  into  the  land 
that  the  trees  or  plants  grow  too  vigorously  or  too  late  in  the 
season." 

Some  of  the  most  useful  of  these  cover  crops  will  not  thrive 
on  hard  and  intractable  land,  and  in  such  cases  a  rougher  and 
coarser  crop  must  be  used.  Bailey  says  further  that  "the 
golden  scale  of  cover  crops  for  orchards  begins  with  rye  and 
ends  with  crimson  clover."  In  saying  this  he,  no  doubt,  had 
in  mind  the  condition  of  most  lands — which  are  hard,  intract- 
able, lacking  in  humus  and  poverty-stricken  in  many  ways 
at  first,  then  becoming  more  mellow,  richer  and  better  drained, 
as  orcharding  processes  are  worked  out,  until  finally  the  soil 
is  in  good  condition. 

Rye,  it  will  be  seen,  is  preeminently  the  cover  crop  for 
rough,  unsubdued  land,  while  crimson  clover  is  at  its  best 
in  fine,  mellow,  fertile  soil.  Buckwheat  and  Indian  corn  can 
be  used  instead  of  rye,  but  they  are  harder  to  plow  down. 
The  corn  should  be  sown  broadcast.  Turnips  and  rape  also 
will  make  a  complete  cover  on  hard  land.  All  of  these  crops 
should  be  sown  in  July  or  August,  or  about  six  weeks  before 
a  killing  frost,  and  all  of  them  will  cover  the  ground  com- 
pletely before  they  are  frozen  down. 

But  these  crops  are  makeshifts.  When  we  use  them,  it  is 
because  the  finer,  true  cover-crop  plants  will  not  do  well,  for 
some  reason  connected  with  the  land  which  we  wish  to  pro- 
tect and  improve.  The  idea  is  to  build  up  the  soil  by  the  use 
of  these  coarser  plants  to  the  point  where  the  better  ones  will 
do  their  best  work.  None  of  these  coarse  crops  should  be  used 
continuously,  year  after  year. 

The  legumes,  comprising  all  the  clovers,  vetch,  cowpeas, 
Canada  peas,  and  common  field  beans,  are  the  cover  plants 
which  gather  nitrogen,  and  at  the  same  time  give  the  protec- 
tion and  the  organic  matter  supplied  by  the  others.  Common 
field  beans,  Canada  peas  and  cowpeas  can  be  sown  on  coarser 
lands  than  the  clovers  because  their  seeds  are  larger  and  a 
catch  is  surer.  Peas  and  clover  mixed  form  a  good  combi- 
nation. Clover  with  rye  and  the  other  non-legumes  also  is  good. 
Where  clover  and  peas  are  used  together,  the  peas  will  be  killed 
by  frost,  leaving  the  clover  in  possession. 

If  legumes  are  sown  £x  to  eight  weeks  before  killing  frost, 
the  plants  will  grow  thickly  and  cover  the  ground  in  fine  shape. 
Plenty  of  seed  should  be  used,  especially  of  cowpeas,  of  which 
the  Black  and  Whip-poor-will  varieties  are  the  best  for  the 
North.  All  varieties  do  well  in  the  South.  Canada  peas  will 
stand  much  cold,  and  will  grow  later  into  the  fall  than  cow- 
peas.  All  peas  except  Canada  are  hot-weather  plants  and  will 
make  a  rank  growth  even  in  dry  weather. 

27 


HOW  TO   GROW  AND   MARKET  FRUIT 

Vetch  should  be  sown  from  July  i  to  Sept.  i.  It  is  pretty 
sure  to  catch,  is  a  legume,  like  peas  and  clover,  and  sown 
then  it  will  be  knee-high  and  very  thick  in  the  fall.  Heavy 
fr©st  does  not  kill  it,  and  it  will  start  again  in  the  spring.  This 
mat  plows  down  easily  in  the  spring,  even  though  it  will  have 
made  a  good  growth  by  April. 

Mammoth,  common  red  and  alsike  clover  never  reach  their 
best  until  they  have  occupied  the  land  for  more  than  a  year. 
It  is  true  that  they  will  make  a  fairly  good  growth  by  winter 
if  they  are  sown  near  the  first  of  July,  but,  unless  conditions 
indicate  that  the  orchard  needs  a  rest  for  a  year,  other  cover-crop 
plants  will  be  found  to  do  the  same  work  better. 

Crimson  clover,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  annual.  It  com- 
pletes its  natural  growth  in  a  year  from  the  time  of  sowing, 
and  is  not  killed  by  the  winter.  When  it  is  sown  in  July  a  good 
growth  will  be  made  before  winter  sets  in,  and  again  in  the 
spring  before  time  to  plow,  which  will  be  as  soon  as  the  land  is 
dry  enough.  This  gives  more  organic  matter  with  which  to 
loosen  up  the  soil,  and  gives  a  longer  period  from  which  the 
plant  can  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air. 

Crimson  clover  is  the  best  clover  plant  we  have  for  sections 
south  of  the  line  of  Trenton,  N.  J.  The  only  limitations  to 
its  use  are  those  of  its  habits.  It  will  not  always  catch  in  poor 
or  rough  land,  nor  is  its  catching  at  all  sure  more  than  four 
out  of  seven  times  north  of  the  line  named.  Usually  a  certain 
amount  of  soil-fertility  building  has  to  be  done  before  it  will 
succeed.  If  you  find  that  crimson  clover  will  thrive  and  make 
a  thick  cover  on  your  land,  you  do  not  need  to  experiment  with 
other  crops,  as  you  have  the  best  there  is.  Crimson  clover 
should  be  sown  from  July  15  to  August  15  in  the  Middle  At- 
lantic states,  earlier  north,  later  south.  In  Pennsylvania  and 
north,  peas  or  some  other  cover-crop  plant  should  be  sown  with 
it. 

The  following  figures  show  the  approximate  quantities  of 
seed  which  are  recommended  per  acre  for  cover  crops  in  young 
orchards.  Old  orchards  will  need  less: 

Barley 2    to  2  i  bus.  Cowpeas 2    bus. 

Beans   ijtoa    bus.  Millet  i    to  i£  bus. 

Buckwheat i    bu.  Oats 2  i  to  3    bus. 

Canada  Peas   i    to  2    bus.  Peas 2    to  3    bus. 

Clover,  crimson   8    to  16  Ibs.  Rye i  J  to  z\  bus. 

Clover,  red 6    to  12  Ibs.  Turnip 3     to  4    Ibs. 

Corn 2  J  to  3    bus.  Vetch   i    bus. 

Common  sense  will  direct  how  these  crops  be  put  in.  Sow 
the  coarser  seed  as  you  would  wheat  or  oats,  the  finer  as 
you  do  clover  or  timothy.  Use  a  machine  or  drill,  if  possible, 
as  that  way  gets  the  seed  on  more  evenly.  One  thing,  however, 
cover-crop  seed  should  always  be  worked  in  with  harrow  if  sown 
broadcast.  Peas  are  sometimes  sown  in  rows,  especially  where 
the  "grain"  is  wanted,  but  this  takes  more  work. 

The  following  statements  of  the  amount  of  plant  food  needed 
by  fruit  trees  are  based  on  data  given  by  Professor  Bailey. 
These  figures  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  quantity  of  food  used  by 

28 


HOW    TO    SUPPLY    PLANT    FOODS 

a  tree.  The  average  is  taken  from  the  trees  on  one  acre,  planted 
thirty-five  feet  apart,  and  over  a  period  of  twenty  years  be- 
tween the  thirteenth  and  thirty-third  years  of  their  age. 

An  average  crop  of  apples  from  one  tree  removes,  in  round 
numbers,  eleven  pounds  of  nitrogen,  one  pound  of  phosphoric 
acid,  and  sixteen  pounds  of  potash.  The  leaves  with  this  crop 
will  contain  ten  pounds  of  nitrogen,  three  pounds  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  ten  pounds  of  potash.  No  figures  are  given  for  the 
amount  used  in  making  new  wood.  The  total  for  fruit  and 
leaves  is  twenty-one  pounds  of  nitrogen,  four  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  twenty-six  pounds  of  potash. 

For  an  acre  of  trees,  the  amounts  would  be  something  like 
1,887  pounds  of  nitrogen,  310  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
1,895  pounds  of  potash.  The  total  value  of  these  plant  foods 
taken  from  an  acre  in  twenty  years  is  about  $379.  To  restore 
the  potash  alone  would  require  about  twenty-one  tons  of  wood 
ashes  containing  five  per  cent  of  potash.  To  restore  the  nitro- 
gen would  require  more  than  sixteen  tons  of  a  fertilizer  con- 
taining five  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  or  more  than  five  tons  of 
nitrate  of  soda  containing  fifteen  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 

Another  calculation  by  the  same  investigator  shows  the 
amount  of  plant-food  which  you  may  expect  the  fruit  and 
the  leaves  to  carry  away  in  ten  crops.  The  data  follows: 

Apples            Leaves  Total  Value 

Nitrogen 408  Ibs.  456  Ibs.  854  Ibs.  $143  30 

Phosphoric  Acid 38  Ibs.  126  Ibs.  164  Ibs.  n  50 

Potash 728  Ibs.  441  Ibs.  1,169  Ibs.  5263 

Total  value $207  43 

"One  of  the  best  sources  of  potash  for  orchards  is  wood 
ashes,"  Prof.  Bailey  continues,  "but  this  material  is  so  often 
weakened  by  leaching  that  it  cannot  be  confidently  recom- 
mended. A  good  sample  of  urleached  hardwood  ashes  should 
contain  from  five  to  nine  per  cent  potash,  but  some  of  the 
commercial  article  does  not  analyze  above  two  or  three  per 
cent.  Potash  in  this  form  has  a  trade  value  of  four-and-a- 
half  cents  per  pound.  To  this  value  of  potash  in  wood  ashes 
should  also  be  added  that  of  two  per  cent  or  less  of  phosphoric 
acid,  now  worth  six  cents  a  pound, — but  only  if  your  land  needs 
phosphoric  acid.  If  it  does  not  need  that  element,  you  cannot 
afford  to  buy  it.  Forty  to  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre  is  considered 
to  be  a  good  dressing  of  wood  ashes,  if  it  has  been  kept  dry. 

"Muriate  of  potash  is  perhaps  the  best  and  most  reliable 
form  in  which  to  secure  potash  at  the  present  time  for  fruits. 
Commercial  samples  generally  contain  from  80  to  85  per  cent 
of  muriate  of  potash,  or  about  50  per  cent  of  actual  potash. 
Kainit  is  an  impure  muriate  of  potash,  containing  about  12 
to  15  per  cent  potash. 

"Sulfate  of  potash  is  also  thought  to  be  a  good  form  in  which 
to  buy  potash.  The  commercial  article  analyzes  50  per  cent  or 
less  of  actual  potash.  Slyvinit  is  a  lower  grade  of  potassium 
fertilizer.  Its  value,  like  that  of  other  materials  mentioned, 
should  be  reckoned  upon  the  amount  of  potash  present. 

29 


HOW  TO   GROW  AND   MARKET   FRUIT 

"Phosphoric  acid  may  be  obtained  in  the  form  of  a  high- 
grade  plain  superphosphate  (like  dissolved  South  Carolina 
rock)  in  bone  compounds,  and  in  Thomas  slag.  The  plain 
superphosphate  contains  about  15  to  18  per  cent  of  phosphoric 
acid.  Two  hundred  to  five  hundred  pounds  per  acre  is  a  liberal 
and  very  useful  dressing  for  bearing  orchards.  The  bone  fer- 
tilizers are  always  valuable.  Those  which  are  untreated  give 
up  their  phosphoric  acid  slowly,  unless  they  are  very  finely 
ground.  Dissolved  bone  gives  more  immediate  results." 

Thomas  phosphate  or  basic  slag  is  especially  valuable,  be- 
cause, in  addition  to  its  15  per  cent  or  more  phosphoric  acid 
content,  it  contains  about  40  per  cent  of  lime.  Some  report 
that  it  parts  with  its  fertility  very  slowly,  but  this  depends 
upon  how  finely  it  is  pulverized,  and  on  the  kind  of  soil  to  which 
it  is  applied.  If  there  is  much  acid  in  the  soil,  or  slight  saltiness, 
this  basic  slag  phosphoric  acid  will  dissolve  quickly  and  com- 
pletely. It  is  especially  good  on  marshy,  loamy  lands.  It  is 
sold  at  a  price  which,  considering  the  large  amount  of  plant- 
food  elements  it  carries,  gives  cheap  phosphoric  acid. 

Again  from  Professor  Bailey:  " Muriate  of  potash  costs  $40 
and  upward  per  ton,  sulfate  about  $48,  dissolved  bone-black 
about  $25,  ground  bone  about  $30,  kainit  about  $13,  and 
nitrate  of  soda  2^  cents  per  pound.  These  prices  vary,  of 
course,  with  the  composition  or  mechanical  condition  of  the 
materials. 

"The  average  composition  of  unleached  ashes  in  the  market 
is  about  as  follows:  Potash,  5.25  per  cent;  phosphoric  acid, 
1.70  per  cent;  lime,  34  per  cent;  magnesia,  3.40  per  cent.  The 
average  composition  of  kainit  is  13.54  per  cent  potash,  1.15 
per  cent  lime.  The  composition  of  sylvinit  (which  is  known 
as  sulfate  of  potash  in  some  quarters)  is  about  16  per  cent 
of  potash,  in  the  form  of  both  muriate  and  sulfate,  mostly  the 
former." 

The  best  chemical  source  from  which  to  get  nitrogen  is 
nitrate  of  soda,  which  contains  9  to  15  per  cent  available  nitro- 
gen, or  180  to  300  pounds  of  available  nitrogen  in  a  ton.  If 
legumes  are  used  as  they  ought  to  be,  little  nitrogen  need  be 
supplied  from  any  other  source,  and  the  nitrogen  secured  from 
plants  will  cost  about  one-fifth  of  what  it  will  otherwise. 

When  starting  to  fertilize  an  orchard,  it  is  often  well  to  use 
a  combination  of  potash  and  acid  phosphate,  with  a  cover 
crop,  and  watch  the  trees  carefully  during  the  growing  season. 
If  they  show  a  light  color,  a  small  amount  of  nitrate  of  soda 
can  be  used. 

Suppose  your  soil  has  been  fed  a  balanced  ration,  and  now 
is  in  good  producing  condition.  If  you  want  to  feed  trees  in 
such  a  soil,  a  fertilizer  containing  one  and  a  half  to  two  per 
cent  of  nitrogen,  two  or  three  per  cent  of  available  phosphoric 
acid  and  10  to  12  per  cent  of  potash,  will  give  excellent  results 
when  applied  in  quantities  ranging  from  400  to  600  pounds  to 
the  acre.  This  means  a  complete,  ready-mixed  fertilizer.  The 
different  elements  can  be  purchased  and  applied  separately 
if  that  would  be  cheaper. 

30 


HOW    TO    SUPPLY    PLANT    FOODS 

As  a  guide  to  the  application  of  the  proper  materials  sepa- 
rately, we  would  say  that  the  following  proportions  are  about 
right  for  a  balanced  tree  diet:  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda; 
100  pounds  of  South  Carolina  rock;  200  pounds  of  ground 
bone;  200  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash.  The  amount  to  be 
used  depends  upon  how  much  the  trees  need;  for  instance, 
large  old  apple  trees  would  require  more  than  young  apple 
trees;  peaches  would  require  more  than  strawberries;  run- 
down orchards  would  need  more  than  those  well  fed. 

Apples  in  full  bearing,  and  on  loose  soil,  may  receive  as  high 
as  1,000  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  to  the  acre.  A  normal  ap- 
plication, however,  would  be  from  150  to  300  pounds.  In  the 
best  orchards,  growers  believe  that  large  applications  of  all 
the  elements,  of  course  in  the  right  proportions,  will  pay  more 
proportionately  than  the  smaller  ones.  Generally  there  is  a 
limit  to  both  the  smallest  and  the  largest  quantities  that 
are  profitable  to  apply,  but  don't  use  fertilizer  blindly.  You 
will  waste  it  if  you  do.  Give  the  trees  the  elements  they  lack. 
See  that  they  have  as  much  of  each  kind  as  they  need.  More 
will  do  no  good;  less  will  reduce  growth  and  production.  Good 
treatment  all  along  the  line  is  what  brings  good  results. 

To  get  the  chemical  fertilizer  on  the  ground  evenly  is  vitally 
important.  A  drill  is  the  thing  to  use  if  you  do  not  want  to 
do  it  by  hand.  For  the  first  few  years  at  least  it  usually  is  best 
to  apply  to  each  tree,  by  hand,  the  exact  quantity  which  you 
decide  is  needed.  This  should  be  scattered  over  a  space  twice 
as  wide  as  the  branches  cover.  The  old  idea  that  roots  go  only 
as  far  as  limbs  has  been  proven  wrong  time  and  again.  Roots 
will  cover  three  times  that  diameter.  If  limbs  are  eight  feet 
long,  you  can  depend  on  finding  roots  twenty  or  more  feet 
in  every  direction. 

Barnyard  manure  seldom  is  good  for  bearing  trees.  It  con- 
tains too  much  nitrogen  and  causes  sappy,  out-of -season  growth; 
it  likewise  has  too  many  weed  seeds  for  comfort.  It  does  good 
work,  however,  around  young  trees,  where  it  can  be  used  as  a 
mulch.  These  need  nitrogen  with  which  to  build  a  frame  of 
wood  quickly.  If  it  is  used,  apply  it  early  in  the  spring,  as  soon 
as  the  winter  surplus  of  water  has  run  off,  and  then  sow  a 
cover  crop  early  in  July  to  take  up  excess  nitrogen. 

It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  rules  for  the  best  handling 
of  all  orchards.  Each  piece  of  land  must  be  studied  sepa- 
rately. After  a  bit  one  will  know  what  is  needed,  and  can  base 
his  work  on  experience  and  observation.  Keep  your  eye  on 
the  individual  trees.  The  first  year  give  them  what  you  think 
they  ought  to  have.  If  they  respond,  you  have  hit  upon  the 
right  thing.  Bear  in  mind,  though,  that  three-fourths  of  the 
results  of  feeding  trees  appear  in  the  second  and  third  years 
after  the  food  materials  are  supplied. 

Experiment  with  different  combinations  and  amounts  of 
fertilizer.  You  can  in  this  way  learn  what  is  best.  Each  tree 
is  an  individual.  Feed  it  according  to  its  needs.  After  a  num- 
ber of  years  of  intelligent  treatment,  all  trees  in  an  orchard 
can  be  brought  into  uniform  condition,  so  the  whole  orchard 


HOW  TO   GROW  AND   MARKET   FRUIT 

may  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  simplifying  the  work.  Gen- 
erally it  is  best  to  apply  each  food  separately.  Mixing  is  not 
needed;  unless  you  can  buy  complete  fertilizer  that  is  made 
exactly  as  you  want,  mixing  will  not  pay. 

When  the  sod-mulch  system  is  in  use,  careful  watching  of 
trees  and  fruit  to  see  what  food  is  needed  is  doubly  necessary. 
Potash  generally  has  to  be  supplied  most  liberally  in  chemical 
(or  commercial)  form.  The  source  of  food  on  which  the  main 
dependence  is  placed,  with  this  system,  is  the  dead  grass  that 
is  mowed  and  left  on  the  land.  How  much  of  each  food  this 
contains  it  is  impossible  to  tell  except  from  the  behavior 
of  trees.  What  this  grass  does  not  supply  must  be  given  in 
another  form. 

Whatever  plan  is  followed  regularly,  it  sometimes  pays  to 
change  for  a  year  or  two.  A  cultivated  crop  such  as  potatoes 
or  tomatoes  is  good,  and  besides,  will  pay  well.  Then  a  sod- 
mulched  orchard  may  need  a  stimulant.  Plow  it  up  and  cul- 
tivate for  a  season.  Turn  down  a  good  heavy  crop  of  a  legume. 
This,  together  with  the  regular  sod  turned  under,  will  change 
the  soil  conditions  and  generally  will  arouse  the  trees. 

Double  crops  are  those  grown  between  trees  for  a  harvest. 
They  may  or  may  not  add  fertility  to  the  soil — usually  they 
consume  great  quantities  of  plant  food  which  must  be  replaced 
from  outside  sources.  Yet  they  pay  well  when  handled  right. 
Tomatoes,  strawberries,  potatoes,  asparagus,  beans  and  melons 
are  the  ones  usually  the  best  to  grow. 

From  the  fertilizing  point  of  view,  which  is  half  of  all  that 
is  to  be  considered  in  the  use  of  double  crops  and  orchard 
filler,  the  thing  hinges  on  just  this:  Don't  try  to  take  more 
out  of  your  soil  than  you  put  in,  and  put  back  into  the  soil  as 
much  as  or  more  than  you  take  out.  Outside  of  these  limits, 
the  more  crops  the  better.  In  growing  crops  between  trees, 
watch  the  trees.  Remember  you  are  growing  the  trees,  not 
the  secondary  crop.  Keep  the  trees  growing  fast,  and  healthy 
in  every  way.  Supply  food  and  moisture  for  everything  that 
grows  on  the  land. 

Double  crops  undoubtedly  complicate  the  situation  a  great 
deal,  as  the  orchardist  must  study  the  needs  of  his  other  crops 
in  the  same  way  as  he  studies  the  needs  of  his  trees.  Bear  in 
mind  that  the  profit  is  the  amount  between  the  value  of  the 
crop  and  the  cost  of  the  extra  labor  and  of  the  plant-food  you 
have  to  supply.  Do  not  rob  the  trees.  Burn  that  on  a  large 
sign,  stick  the  sign  in  your  orchard  where  you  can  see  it  all 
the  time;  then  go  ahead  and  raise  inter-crops  until  the  trees 
begin  to  bear  nicely. 

SUMMARY 

Crops  that  pay  big  profits  are  unnaturally  heavy  crops,  and 
to  get  them  we  must  feed  the  trees. 

Soil  itself  never  is  food  for  trees — it  merely  carries  plant 
food — and  it  must  be  finely  and  deeply  pulverized,  loosened, 
and  filled  with  decaying  vegetable  matter  before  roots  can 
absorb  the  plant  food  present. 


CULTIVATION    AND    MULCHING 

"Decay"  is  mostly  the  action  of  bacteria. 

Lime  is  not  a  plant  food  to  any  extent,  but  is  badly  needed 
by  trees,  to  help  them  use  plant  food  and  to  help  put  the  soil 
in  good  physical  shape. 

Make  your  soil  fine  and  loose  and  loamy  before  you  add 
fertilizer  and  you  will  not  need  to  add  so  much. 

No  two  pieces  of  land  are  alike  in  plant-food  needs.  Learn 
to  know  what  elements  are  lacking,  and  supply  them  in  right 
proportions.  Do  not  waste  fertilizer  by  blind  applications. 

Potash,  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  are  the  plant  foods 
that  have  to  be  supplied.  Nitrogen  usually  is  best  gotten 
through  leguminous  cover  crops.  Potash  and  phosphorus 
have  to  be  supplied  in  chemical  form. 

Nitrogen  is  the  growing  material,  making  wood,  and  size 
in  fruit;  potash  goes  into  fruit  largely,  making  flavor  and 
color;  phosphoric  acid  goes  into  wood  and  seeds,  but  only  a 
fifth  as  much  of  it  is  used  as  of  potash. 

Cover  crops  disintegrate  and  pulverize  soil,  add  to  it  organic 
matter,  prevent  plant  food  from  leaching  and  (the  legumes) 
add  nitrogen.  The  kind  to  use  depends  on  your  locality  and 
your  soil. 

Get  plant  foods  on  the  ground  evenly,  over  a  space  at  least 
twice  as  wide  as  the  branches  cover,  and  apply  it  at  the  right 
season. 

Double  crops  pay,  but  you  must  supply  plant  food  and 
moisture  for  everything  that  grows  on  the  land.  Do  not  rob  the 
trees. 


Cultivation,  Mulching  and  Other 
Orchard  Treatment 

WHY  should  we  use  time  and  money  in  "fooling  with  the 
dirt"  around  trees?    Before  we  came  to  this  world  there 
was  fruit  which  grew  without  a  bit  of  care.    Why  not 
adopt  those  methods  now? 

The  answer  is  simple:  We  do  not  cultivate  to  kill  weeds, 
nor  mulch  to  keep  frost  out.  We  do  this  work  to  increase  the 
number  of  bushels  or  boxes  or  baskets  or  carloads  of  fruit; 
to  better  its  size,  texture,  keeping  qualities,  its  color  and  its 
taste,  and  to  make  the  trees  more  vigorous.  We  are  not  satis- 
fied with  either  the  kind  of  apples  our  grandfathers  grew,  or 
the  quantity  they  produced. 

To  obtain  these  results,  it  is  necessary  to  save  moisture,  to 
promote  drainage,  to  change  insoluble  plant-food  elements 
into  available  plant  food,  to  improve  the  texture  of  the  earth 
(make  it  fine,  and  thus  give  roots  a  better  chance  to  feed,  mix 
it  with  dead  vegetable  matter,  and  so  subdue  it  more  and  more), 
to  increase  the  depth  of  useful  soil,  to  make  the  temperature 
of  the  soil  average  higher  and  have  less  range,  to  prevent 

33 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

winter  damage  to  trees,  to  keep  plant-food  from  leaching  away, 
to  prevent  gullying  and  surface  washing,  to  produce  con- 
ditions under  which  the  soil  will  dry  off  and  either  warm  up 
sooner,  or  stay  cold  longer,  as  desired,  in  the  spring,  to  supply 
plant-food,  to  help  friendly  bacteria  grow  and  increase,  and  to 
destroy  unfriendly  bacteria,  insects,  fungi,  weeds  and  animals. 

Anything  that  will  help  accomplish  these  things  is  good, 
but  the  best  methods  are  those  which  do  it  with  the  least 
trouble  and  expense  in  proportion  to  each  dollar's  worth  of 
fruit  grown.  No  one  procedure  is  best  all  the  time.  Each 
different  process  will  secure  partly  some  of  the  objects;  usually 
it  will  be  found  that  the  program  can  be  varied  to  advantage. 
What  to  do  depends  upon  the  trees,  weather,  soil,  location, 
pocket-book,  facilities,  the  time  at  command,  and  the  purpose 
for  which  the  fruit  is  wanted. 

All  methods  are  related  but  do  not  overlap.  With  a  certain 
purpose  in  view,  you  often  can  start  with  one  method,  and  carry 
on  or  finish  the  work  better  and  at  less  expense  by  a  different 
process.  The  most  successful  fruit-growers  do  not  have  any 
one  set  system  for  their  work.  They  recognize  that  all  orchard 
processes  have  their  uses,  and  that  there  is  little  choice  of  what 
to  do  in  any  situation,  when  things  are  understood  and  the 
best  way  is  wanted. 

Mulching  with  grass  grown  in  the  orchard,  mulching  with 
straw  and  other  materials  brought  into  the  orchard,  growing 
and  turning  down  cover  crops,  cultivating  with  plows,  har- 
rows, dynamite  and  underdrains,  are  the  means  we  have  of 
giving  culture  to  orchard  land. 

Before  trees  are  planted,  the  ground  should  be  subdued 
thoroughly.  "Subdued"  is  exactly  the  word  to  use.  The  treat- 
ment should  be  whatever  is  needed  to  accomplish  that  result. 
Usually  it  is  best  to  first  grow  one  or  two  cultivated  crops  on 
the  land.  This  will  show  the  wet  spots,  the  hard  ones,  the 
places  where  subsoil  comes  close  to  the  surface,  and  acquaint 
you  with  every  corner.  You  then  can  drain  or  do  anything 
else  needed  without  interfering  with  the  trees  and  without 
having  the  trees  interfere  with  the  work. 

In  the  discussion  of  drainage,  moisture,  and  feeding  trees, 
we  explain  the  essence  of  orchard  culture.  As  we  have  said, 
it  is  necessary  to  break  up  the  subsoil,  whether  there  is  hard- 
pan  or  not.  Subsoil  plowing  will  do  this  in  preparing  the  land 
at  first  while  the  trees  are  young.  Underdrainage  will  help 
constantly  to  loosen  the  soil,  and  to  keep  it  loose.  The  dyna- 
mite method  usually  is  the  cheapest  at  any  time,  and  it  is 
the  only  way  by  which  the  work  can  be  done  thoroughly  after 
the  trees  have  been  in  three  or  four  years. 

How  much  dynamite  to  use,  what  kind,  how  deep  and 
how  far  apart  the  holes  should  be,  are  details  which  are  decided 
by  simple  experiments  in  the  kind  of  soil  to  be  loosened.  Dy- 
namite manufacturers  will  supply  all  the  information  needed. 
They  have  issued  several  practical  handbooks  for  distribution. 
Test  out  your  soil  by  trying  three  or  four  pairs  of  holes  30, 
36  and  42  inches  deep,  charged  with  third,  half  and  whole 

34 


Left:    Good  planting  plan  for  peach  orchard.    Right:    Properly  headed  peach  tree. 


West  Virginia  Orchard  with  excellent  air-drainage.   This  orchard  worth  $1,200  an  acre. 


Apple  trees  planted  20  x  20  feet.   At  eleven  years  old  they  are  too  close 


Fill  chicken  yards  with  plum  and  cherry  trees.   Trees  will  thrive. 

35 


Eighteen  hundred  apples  were  thinned  trom  this  tree  in  June — increasing  yield. 


Left:  Dwarf  pear  tree  trained  to  wall.    Right:  Dwarf  apple  trees  trained  in  flat  form. 


Old  pear  trees  that  have  yielded  $23  worth  of  fruit  a  season  for  years. 
36 


CULTIVATION    AND    MULCHING 

sticks.  Shoot  and  examine  carefully.  The  ground  should  not 
blow  out,  but  should  be  loosened  six  or  eight  feet  on  each  side 
of  the  charge. 

Dynamite  is  the  thing  with  which  to  dig  holes  for  new 
trees,  to  break  up  the  whole  soil  three  or  four  feet  deep  every 
few  years,  and  to  help  renovate  old  orchards,  because  it  will 
do  these  things  more  cheaply  and  better  than  they  can  be  done 
by  any  other  means.  If  you  have  fruit  trees  which  seem  to 
be  standing  still  and  which  do  not  bear,  no  matter  how  big 
they  are,  properly  explode  a  charge  in  the  soil  around  or  between 
them,  and  the  trees  will  likely  get  to  work.  In  a  bearing  orchard, 
a  proper  charge  midway  between  trees  is  always  safe  and  is 
generally  very  effective. 

In  soil  work  with  dynamite,  the  proper  charge  will  heave 
the  ground  over  a  space  from  six  to  twelve  feet  in  diameter, 
and  as  a  by-product  kill  all  insects  and  grubs.  Under  certain 
instances  tree  holes  should  have  the  dirt  blown  out,  but  it 
is  generally  best  to  merely  loosen  it  up.  A  big  shovel  will 
sink  down  to  where  the  tree  should  go  at  one  motion  if  the 
ground  has  been  heaved.  Ditching  in  heavy,  wet  land  can  be 
done  sometimes  to  advantage  with  dynamite.  In  this  work 
heavier  charges  are  placed  close  enough  together  to  blow  out 
the  dirt. 

After  you  have  torn  up  the  soil,  harrow  and  roll  it  repeatedly. 
Make  the  upper  six  or  eight  inches  as  fine  as  garden  soil.  This 
will  take  time  and  work,  but  will  save  both  in  the  next  five 
years.  If  orchard  land  is  cared  for  properly  in  its  early  stages, 
no  heavy  plowing  will  be  needed  later.  There  should  be  plenty 
of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  when  the  trees  are  planted. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  turn  furrows  in  plowing  orchard  land. 
Cutaway  or  disc  harrows  are  better  than  landside  plows. 
Mix  the  soil — that's  the  thing.  Stir  it  up.  After  you  have  the 
work  started,  any  kind  of  harrow,  cultivator  or  drag  will  do 
good  work. 

After  plowing,  be  sure  to  get  the  air-spaces  between  furrows 
entirely  filled.  Air  is  needed  in  the  soil,  but  never  in  larger 
quantity  than  a  ""chunk"  the  size  of  a  pin-head  at  one  place. 
Each  cubic  inch  of  soil  should  have  several  hundreds  of  these. 
Use  rollers,  clod-crushers,  or  soil-packers  after  plowing,  until 
you  are  certain  there  are  no  big  air-spaces  a  few  inches  under 
the  surface. 

How  cultivation  feeds  trees  and  saves  moisture  has  been 
explained  already,  but  here  are  more  details.  Young  orchards 
of  any  kind  always  should  be  cultivated  clean,  from  spring 
until  in  July.  Plow  or  tear  up  the  soil  as  soon  as  ground  is 
dry  enough  to  work,  harrow  after  every  rain,  and  every  week 
or  ten  days  until  it  is  time  to  sow  the  cover  crop,  or  to  mulch 
for  winter. 

Keep  young  trees  hustling.  They  have  to  build  a  big  frame 
on  which  to  carry  their  crops,  and  they  have  only  a  few  years 
to  build  it  in.  Make  them  grow  all  they  can  every  year,  just 
so  they  stop  in  time  to  ripen  their  wood  before  frost.  Young 
trees  can  keep  on  growing  with  safety  a  month  or  six  weeks 

37 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

longer  than  bearing  trees.  The  cultivation  keeps  them  sup- 
plied with  available  plant-food  and  with  sufficient  moisture. 
Start  cultivation  of  apples  before  the  buds  even  swell  in  spring. 
See  that  trees  are  hoed  around.  A  half-penny's  worth  of  work 
will  do  wonders  for  your  young  trees.  This  early  cultivation 
is  most  important  and  we  always  think  that  it  is  worth  more 
than  twice  the  work  done  a  month  later. 

As  for  the  depth  to  work,  go  deep  while  you  can.  The 
first  or  second  working  each  spring  should  reach  a  foot  below 
the  surface  in  all  the  space  not  occupied  by  roots.  Later  bar- 
rowings  need  go  only  three  inches  deep,  and  two  inches  will 
do.  Where  roots  are,  and  close  up  under  the  trees,  four  inches 
in  as  deep  as  the  ground  should  be  worked.  But  remember 
this  working  so  often  directly  under  the  branches  of  a  tree  is 
of  far  less  value,  either  in  conserving  moisture  or  in  feeding 
that  tree,  than  working  the  space  from  the  ends  of  the  branches 
out  to  the  next  tree,  because  three-fourths  of  the  feeding  roots 
are  beyond  the  branch  tips. 

Never  cut  off  a  valuable  limb  to  get  under  it  with  team  and 
tools.  Better  by  all  means  depend  on  harrows  lapping  over 
there.  Bearing  orchards  should  be  worked  the  first  time  in 
spring  six  or  eight  inches  deep,  if  they  have  been  used  to  that 
depth  all  their  lives.  If  they  have  been  in  sod,  tear  up  only 
four  inches  of  soil,  because  many  roots  will  be  even  higher  than 
that.  One  of  the  values  of  cultivation  lies  in  making  the  roots 
go  deeper,  keeping  them  away  from  the  dry,  hot  and  cold  sur- 
face, and  down  where  they  can  feed  all  the  time. 

Some  of  the  pictures  here  show  bearing  trees  which  have  no 
space  at  all  under  the  limbs.  There  are  great  advantanges  in 
this  system  when  it  comes  to  spraying  and  picking.  But  cul- 
tivation under  such  trees  is  impossible,  and  the  way  to  handle 
them  is  to  cover  the  ground  under  the  limbs  six  to  eighteen 
inches  deep  with  hay  or  straw  every  year.  When  trees  are 
first  planted,  this  mulching  for  three  or  four  feet  around  each 
is  the  best  thing  that  can  be  done. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  move  the  mulch  back  about  a  foot 
from  the  tree  before  every  winter  to  guard  against  damage 
by  mice,  and  in  no  case  should  the  mulch  be  closer  than  six 
inches  to  the  trunk,  summer  or  winter.  The  ground  should 
be  heaped  up  slightly  about  the  trees,  too.  Mice  will  not  cross 
this  open  space.  This  mulch  will  save  the  moisture  under  it;  the 
trees  can  be  fed  just  the  same,  and  in  many  ways  it  is  better 
to  mulch  under  the  limbs  and  cultivate  up  to  the  mulch  than 
to  try  to  work  all  the  surface.  In -southern  Ohio  can  be  seen 
a  practice  of  gathering  weeds  and  trash  of  all  sorts  and  hauling 
it  into  the  orchard  around  the  trees.  Rome  Beauty,  York 
Imperial,  and  other  similar  apples  respond  wonderfully  to  this 
treatment. 

The  sod-mulch  system  of  orcharding  is  this  same  idea  car- 
ried further.  The  whole  surface  of  the  ground  is  covered  with 
a  stiff,  thrifty  sod  of  blue  grass,  timothy,  red  top  and  clover, 
or  with  almost  any  permanent  grass  that  will  ^make  hay.  A 
legume  helps  in  supplying  nitrogen.  Then  this  is  kept  mowed 

38 


CULTIVATION    AND     MULCHING 

down  as  often  as  it  seems  worth  while,  beginning  in  the  spring 
as  soon  as  the  weather  gets  dry.  Some  orchardists  who  use 
this  system  mow  as  often  as  the  machine  will  catch  the  grass, 
as  with  a  lawn,  and  leave  the  grass  where  it  falls.  Others  mow 
less  frequently,  allowing  the  grass  to  get  a  foot  or  so  high  each 
time.  Sometimes  two  mowings  a  season  are  enough;  again, 
four  will  be  needed.  Cut  in  this  way,  the  grass  will  not  use 
so  much  water,  and  will  provide  a  continual  shade  that  to  a 
certain  extent  has  the  same  effect  as  a  mulch  of  dust. 

No  matter  how  often  mowing  is  done,  half  or  two-thirds 
of  the  green  hay  ought  to  be  raked  up  and  spread  under  the 
trees  and  over  a  few  feet  beyond  branch  tips.  The  vital  point 
in  the  success  of  sod- mulch  orcharding  is:  Not  a  blade  of  grass 
is  to  be  removed  from  the  orchard.  If  there  is  too  much  to  go 
under  the  trees,  say  more  than  enough  to  make  a  mulch  eigh- 
teen inches  deep,  the  surplus  may  be  left  over  the  center  spaces, 
the  layer  getting  thinner  toward  the  middle.  Some  of  the 
largest  and  highest-colored  apples  and  pears  and  plums  seen 
in  the  markets  or  shows  come  from  sod-mulched  orchards. 
Peaches  and  dwarf  pears  almost  invariably  fail  in  sod  mulch. 
They  must  be  cultivated. 

The  sod-mulch  system  will  produce  wonderful  results  on 
apples  and  pears  in  the  hands  of  growers  who  will  do  it  right, 
where  there  is  enough  rainfall.  Sod-mulched  trees  usually 
do  not  make  as  much  growth  as  those  which  are  cultivated. 
For  this  reason  all  young  trees  should  be  cultivated.  Often 
bearing  trees  are  big  enough,  anyhow,  and  on  them  extra 
growth  simply  means  extra  pruning  and  heading  back  to  keep 
them  low  enough. 

A  net  return  of  $38  more  from  a  cultivated  apple  orchard 
than  from  a  sod-mulched  orchard  adjoining  it  was  noted  in 
a  thorough  test  in  New  York,  where  the  conditions  were  iden- 
tical; yet  this  proves  nothing  more  than  that  in  this  case  the 
sod  was  not  a  good  thing.  In  this  experiment,  the  apples  from 
cultivated  trees  were  not  colored  so  well  as  those  from  trees 
in  sod;  but  they  averaged  larger,  had  a  better  flavor,  and  kept 
better  late  in  winter. 

Rocky  soils  sometimes  are  fine  for  fruit,  but  they  cannot 
be  worked  at  all  except  with  dynamite.  On  such  places  get  a 
good  sod,  mow  it  regularly  at  the  right  time,  mulch  the  trees 
with  the  hay,  add  some  potash,  and  your  orchard  will  be  a 
great  success  with  little  work.  Steep  places  can  be  treated 
in  the  same  way;  but  terracing,  or  tearing  up  and  leaving  alter- 
nate strips  of  sod  every  year,  working  half  the  ground  each 
season,  often  will  produce  bigger  crops  and  still  prevent  wash- 
ing. 

Do  not  pasture  your  orchard.  Bearing  trees  will  pay  you 
more  than  $250  to  the  acre  if  you  allow  them  to,  but  they  will 
not  if  they  are  mistreated.  Be  satisfied  with  that  return  and 
do  not  try  to  get  another  crop.  Remember  that  the  droppings 
of  animals  will  not  return  a  tenth  of  what  the  animals  take 
from  the  soil.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the  usually  double 
crop  between  trees.  The  yield  of  wool,  mutton,  beef,  pork, 

39 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

hay,  grain,  etc.,  from  an  acre  of  orchard  could  not  possibly 
be  worth  more  than  a  fraction  of  the  value  of  a  full  fruit  crop; 
yet  to  raise  any  of  these  in  the  orchard  will  reduce  the  value 
of  the  fruit  crop  to  only  one-fifth  or  even  less  of  what  it  would 
have  been  without  them.  Never  think  of  removing  a  non- 
cultivated  crop  from  between  rows  of  fruit  trees. 

Apples,  pears,  cherries,  and  plums,  in  light  sandy  soil,  espe- 
cially where  rainfall  in  the  growing  season  sometimes  is  short, 
always  are  best  clean-cultivated.  Peaches  and  dwarf  pears,  in 
any  soil,  always  should  be  cultivated  well.  To  facilitate  this, 
larger  growing  trees  may  be  headed  high  enough  at  the 
trunk  so  that  limbs  will  clear  the  team,  and  the  limbs  of  smaller 
trees  will  not  project  far  enough  to  interfere.  Keep  harrows 
and  plows  away  from  trunks  of  trees.  Turn  plows  out  when 
near  trees  on  all  sides.  Finish  this  space  with  a  hand  hoe  if 
it  needs  to  be  cultivated.  Use  center-trace  harness  whenever 
possible;  this  is  made  by  putting  the  doubletree  across  the 
collars  in  front,  and  hitching  by  one  chain  or  rope  from  the 
center  of  the  doubletree  directly  to  the  plow  or  harrow. 

Cover  all  the  surface  in  harrowing,  except  that  little  space 
around  tree  trunks.  Harrow  in  every  direction  if  you  can.  In 
all  cultivation  try  to  keep  the  surface  even  and  level.  Allow 
no  dead  furrows  or  ridges.  Even  on  hillsides,  where  there  is 
a  furrow  next  to  the  sod  strip,  harrow  or  drag  this  shut  soon. 

In  case  severe  economy  is  necessary,  or  where  help  is  scarce, 
a  combination  of  the  clean  cultivation  and  the  mulch  methods 
can  be  used.  Plow  a  narrow  strip  alongside  each  row  of  trees. 
Cultivate  this  and  cover  the  rest  with  sod,  and  mow.  A  man 
by  the  name  of  Hitchings,  in  New  York,  uses  this  method  en- 
tirely, in  preference  to  any  other  treatment  he  could  give  his 
orchard,  and  he  is  certainly  very  successful. 

Up  to  the  time  trees  are  six  or  seven  years  old,  their  roots 
will  not  occupy  all  the  space,  and  cultivated  double  crops  can 
be  used.  Even  when  filler  trees  are  planted  as  close  as  fifteen 
or  twenty  feet,  the  ground  between  can  be  made  to  yield  a 
profit  while  the  trees  are  small;  and  at  the  same  time,  if  proper 
fertilizers  are  supplied,  the  orchards  will  be  benefited  by  cul- 
tivation given  to  these  double  crops. 

Some  of  the  best  business  farmers  of  the  country  say  it 
costs  entirely  too  much  to  bring  an  orchard  into  bearing  with- 
out between-tree  crops.  When  a  man  wants  to  start  an  orchard 
and  does  not  have  the  money,  he  often  can  do  it  by  growing 
four  or  five  crops  of  strawberries,  tomatoes,  asparagus,  or 
something  similar  between  his  trees.  Do  not  plant  potatoes, 
or  any  crop  requiring  digging  after  August  i,  as  this  will 
act  the  same  as  late  cultivation  and  force  fall  growth  of  trees. 
The  May  and  June  cultivation  given  these  crops  is  just  the  thing 
required  by  young  trees.  Markets  are  waiting  for  these  pro- 
ducts. All  that  is  required  is  to  study  how  to  pack  them,  and 
make  proper  arrangements  for  selling  them.  We  advise  sowing 
a  cover  crop  with  any  intercrop,  at  the  last  cultivation,  and 
let  it  come  on.  Rye  or  rye  and  vetch  are  good,  and  will  make 
a  cover  crop  to  carry  through  fall  and  winter. 

40 


Pear  trees  too  thick.     Cut  three-fourths  of  head  off  alternate  trees  each  year. 


How  to  head  young  peach  trees.    Cut  branches  back  to  stubs,  and  stem  off  to  12  inches. 


Low,  open-headed  apple  tree  when  young,  and  also  when  loaded  with  fruit. 

41 


Apple  trees  are   splendid  on  lawn — left.    Dwarf  tree  in  commercial  orchard — right. 


How  NOT  to  prune.   Wrong  season,  stubs  left,  low  limbs  cut  off, — tree  butchery. 


Five-year  trees  that  are  bearing  from  100  to  250  apples  each — three  times  too  many. 

42 


CULTIVATION    AND    MULCHING 

Cultivation,  like  every  other  good  thing,  is  good  in  its  place, 
and  bad  when  out  of  its  place.  All  fruit  trees  should — and 
will,  if  conditions  are  normal — cease  growth  about  July  i.  Later 
growth  will  prevent  fruit  from  ripening,  and  will  send  the  tree 
into  winter  with  sappy  wood  and  buds.  Now,  when  trees  have 
not  ripened  as  they  should,  buds  and  twigs  are  hurt  by  freez- 
ing to  an  extent  seldom  appreciated.  We  cannot  always  see 
this  damage.  Few  realize  that  it  ever  is  done.  But  a  crop 
often  is  frozen  one  or  two  years  ahead,  and  when  we  do  not 
get  fruit  we  say  that  something  is  wrong,  yet  fail  to  learn 
what  that  something  is. 

Cultivation  must  stop  not  later  than  August  i  in  young 
orchards,  and  three  or  four  weeks  earlier  in  bearing  orchards. 
A  cover  crop  that  will  use  up  moisture  and  nitrogen  should  be 
sown,  to  make  sure  that  ripening  begins.  There  are  other 
reasons  for  cover  crops;  but,  from  the  cultural  standpoint, 
this  is  most  important.  Allowing  the  ground  to  bake  might 
accomplish  the  ripening,  too,  but  it  would  produce  bad  effects 
as  well.  To  aid  ripening,  mulches  sometimes  may  be  pulled  back 
from  trees  in  August.  This  applies  particularly  to  young  trees. 

When  to  cultivate,  when  to  mulch,  and  when  to  use  sod, 
depends  entirely  upon  the  conditions.  Each  will  produce  its 
own  effects.  The  grower  must  decide  what  methods  are  best — 
must  decide  what  he  wants  to  do  with  his  trees,  then  use  the 
means  that  produce  that  result.  Consider  every  effect  of  what 
you  are  going  to  do.  For  instance,  sod  will  ripen  wood  and 
fruit  weeks  earlier  than  cultivation,  in  the  same  way  that  a 
too-early  cover  crop  will,  by  using  up  the  moisture  and  nitro- 
gen. Again,  cultivation  will  destroy  mice  and  insects;  and 
still  again,  with  mulch,  fire  always  must  be  guarded  against, 
particularly  near  railroads,  woods  and  houses.  Fire  almost 
surely  would  kill  the  trees.  There  are  dozens  of  points  to  con- 
sider. Study  all,  and  use  the  methods  best  suited  to  your  condi- 
tions, but  modify  them  or  change  them  entirely  if  this  will 
produce  better  results. 

SUMMARY 

We  do  not  cultivate  to  kill  weeds  nor  mulch  to  keep  frost 
out.  We  do  these  things  to  save  moisture;  to  promote  drainage; 
to  change  insoluble  plant-food  elements  into  available  plant 
food;  to  improve  the  texture  of  the  earth;  to  mix  dead  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil;  to  increase  the  depth  of  useful  soil;  to  make 
the  temperature  of  the  soil  average  higher  and  have  less  range; 
to  prevent  winter  damage  to  trees;  to  keep  plant  food  from 
leaching  away;  to  produce  conditions  under  which  soil  will 
warm  up  sooner  or  stay  colder  longer,  as  desired,  in  the  spring; 
to  supply  plant  food;  to  help  friendly  bacteria  grow  and  increase; 
to  destroy  unfriendly  bacteria,  insects,  fungi  and  animals. 

Mulching  with  straw  and  hay,  growing  and  turning  down 
cover  crops  and  cultivating  with  plows,  harrows,  dynamite, 
and  underdraining  are  the  means  we  have  of  giving  culture  to 
orchard  land. 

43 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

Before  trees  are  planted,  the  soil  should  be  "subdued"  thor- 
oughly. 

Dynamite  tree  holes,  also  break  up  hard  pan  and  subsoil 
with  dynamite,  whenever  possible. 

Mix  the  soil — that's  the  thing.   Stir  it  up. 

Get  rid  of  all  large  air-spaces  a  few  inches  down. 

Begin  cultivation  of  young  trees  as  early  in  spring  as  possible. 
A  penny's  worth  of  work  done  in  March  or  April  is  worth  a 
nickel's  worth  in  June. 

Cover  ground  for  a  few  feet  about  young  trees  with  a  heavy 
mulch.  Leave  a  six-  to  twelve-inch  space  about  the  trunks  (and 
heap  up  soil  slightly)  as  a  guard  against  mice. 

Keep  young  trees  hustling  till  time  to  bear,  then  make  them 
yield  without  growing  much  excess  wood. 

Always  cease  cultivation  in  time  to  allow  trees  to  ripen 
wood  thoroughly  before  frost. 

When  done  right,  the  sod-mulch  system  is  good  where  there 
is  plenty  of  rainfall. 

No  farmer  will  think  of  raising  an  orchard  without  growing 
between-tree  crops  that  will  pay  from  the  start. 

Study  your  trees  and  give  them  the  treatment  that  they 
ought  to  have  for  best  results.  That  is  what  orchard  culture 
means,  no  matter  what  the  methods  used  to  effect  the  desired 
purposes. 


Jack  Frost 


TO  give  this  old  gentleman  the  credit  due  him,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  his  children — cool  and  cold  weather —  put 
quality  into  fruit.  Northern  sections  and  higher  eleva- 
tions produce  better  fruit  than  southern  sections  and  low 
regions;  and  those  parts  of  the  world  where  the  nights  are  cool 
and  days  not  too  hot  are  famous  for  the  quality  of  their  fruit. 

Take  advantage  of  this  fact  whenever  it  is  possible.  If  there 
is  a  choice,  put  your  trees  on  high  land  for  this  reason,  although 
there  are  others.  Certain  varieties  thrive  down  low,  but  within 
the  latitude  adapted  to  any  one  kind  the  higher  it  is  grown 
the  better  it  will  taste  and  keep.  Take  the  York  Imperial 
Apple,  for  instance.  Grown  below  an  altitude  of  three  hundred 
feet  in  Pennsylvania,  it  is  large,  bright  red,  handsome,  pithy, 
tasteless,  and  dry;  grown  at  eight  hundred  feet,  it  is  small, 
red-and-yellow  striped,  crisp,  juicy,  rich  and  "just  fine."  The 
same  applies  to  variations  North  and  South. 

In  this  connection,  we  should  pause  and  consider  elevation. 
Of  course,  the  higher  we  get,  the  less  total  amount  of  heat  there 
is  in  a  season.  High  lands  usually  have  cooler  nights  than  low 
lands,  and  the  warm  part  of  the  day  generally  is  shorter.  The 
elevation  at  which  the  total  of  heat  in  a  season  falls  below  the 
requirements  for  growing  and  ripening  a  fruit  cannot  be  given 
in  definite  figures  that  apply  to  all  sections,  because,  as  we  go 
south,  that  line  goes  higher. 

44 


FROST    DAMAGE    TO    ORCHARDS 

About  every  mile  further  south  makes  as  much  difference 
in  the  season  temperature  as  about  eight  feet  of  elevation.  That 
is,  a  point  a  mile  south  of  you  will  have  to  be  eight  feet  higher 
than  your  position  to  have  exactly  the  same  conditions;  a 
point  a  hundred  miles  south  will  have  to  be  eight  hundred  feet 
higher.  The  rule  is  that  every  degree  of  latitude  equals  five 
hundred  feet  of  elevation. 

Frost  causes  an  immense  amount  of  damage  when  not 
guarded  against,  however,  by  freezing  blossoms,  by  freezing 
fruit  before  it  is  fully  colored  in  the  fall,  by  freezing  buds,  and 
by  stunting  and  killing  trees.  A  great  deal  of  this  damage  is 
preventable  by  taking  advantage  of  certain  natural  agencies, 
or  by  artificial  means.  It  is  not  necessary  to  lose  every  second 
or  third  crop  from  frost.  Even  tender  fruits,  like  peaches,  can 
be  made  to  yield  every  year  by  applying  modern  knowledge 
of  preventing  frost  damage.  The  degree  of  cold  which  hurts 
fruit  at  various  stages  of  growth  has  been  learned  pretty  defi- 
nitely. It  is  not  always  32  degrees,  the  water-freezing  point. 

Of  course,  some  kinds  of  fruit  trees,  buds  and  blossoms  are 
damaged  more  easily  than  others.  Dormant  peach  buds  will 
stand  ten  or  fifteen  degrees  below  zero,  some  varieties  more, 
others  less.  When  peach  buds  have  swollen  the  least  bit,  zero 
usually  will  kill  them;  when  showing  pink  they  can  stand 
fifteen  degrees  above  zero;  when  newly  opened  twenty-six 
degrees  is  the  limit.  When  petals  are  falling,  twenty-eight 
degrees  will  damage  them  slightly,  and  when  petals  are  off  they 
cannot  stand  much  below  thirty  degrees.  After  that,  thirty- 
two  is  the  danger  point. 

Apple  twigs,  and  buds,  if  ripened  right,  will  stand  almost 
any  cold.  Sixty  below  zero  has  been  known  to  kill  some  vari- 
eties, but  little  fear  need  be  felt  for  any  apple  tree— when 
it  goes  into  winter  in  right  shape.  We  have  explained  this  sub- 
ject in  the  chapter  on  cultivation.  Apple  blossoms  showing 
pink  will  stand  twenty  degrees  above;  full  open,  twenty-six 
degrees;  with  falling  petals,  twenty-eight  or  thirty  degrees. 
Pears  are  about  the  same  as  apples.  Cherries  and  plums  are 
slightly  more  tender;  they  might  need  two  degrees  more  warmth, 
— but  sometimes  their  blossoms  come  through  black  frosts 
with  no  apparent  harm.  Grape  buds  seldom  will  stand  tem- 
perature colder  than  thirty-one  degrees. 

A  point  to  remember  is  that  blossoms  may  not  show  any 
frosting,  yet  still  may  be  damaged  enough  to  prevent  their 
setting  perfect  fruit.  Gnarly,  crooked,  small  and  bitter  fruit 
is  not  always  the  result  of  insufficient  pollination  or  damage 
by  insects  or  fungi.  It  may  have  been  caused  by  frosts  in  spring 
or  winter. 

The  chief  means  we  can  make  use  of  to  prevent  any  and 
all  of  this  frost  damage  are  these:  Locate  within  a  few  miles  of 
a  considerable  body  of  water;  locate  on  a  slope,  a  bench  or  a 
hill-top  from  which  air  can  drain  away  into  lower  land;  avoid 
table-lands,  plains,  and,  above  all,  pockets  or  valley  floors; 
choose  land  facing  the  north  or  east  rather  than  that  facing 
south  or  west;  cultivate  so  that  trees  will  be  late  in  starting  to 

45 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

grow  and  bloom  in  the  spring,  and  early  to  ripen  wood  and 
fruit  in  the  fall;  plan  or  make  use  of  windbreaks  of  other  kinds 
of  trees,  and  use  smoke  and  moisture  for  protection  when 
frost  comes  at  critical  times. 

The  problem  of  location  already  is  solved  for  the  great 
majority  of  growers  and  would-be  growers.  If  you  own  a  farm, 
that  is  the  place  on  which  to  grow  your  fruit.  The  fact  that 
you  have  it  and  know  the  soil  gives  you  a  greater  advantage 
than  you  can  secure  by  changing,  unless  you  now  are  in  a  poor 
location  for  fruit,  and  can  get  a  good  price  for  your  land.  If 
this  is  the  case,  move  into  a  section  that  is  known  to  be  good 
for  fruit  and  as  near  the  big  markets  as  you  can  get.  If  you 
cannot  change,  you  can  make  yourself  practically  safe  from 
frost  by  wise  planning  and  a  little  work. 

Water  heats  up  and  grows  cold  more  slowly  than  earth. 
When  the  sun  beats  down  warmly  during  winter  and  early 
spring  days,  water  stays  cold,  while  land  gets  warm.  Later, 
water  gets  warm  too,  but,  unlike  the  land,  it  stays  warm,  and 
does  not  cool  off  every  frosty  night.  And  air  always  is  of  about 
the  same  temperature  as  the  substance  it  rests  on. 

Now,  both  freezing  of  blossoms  and  "sun  scald"  (which  is 
only  freezing  of  sappy  growth)  would  be  unknown  if  there 
were  no  higher  temperature  to  start  growth,  followed  by  low 
temperature  that  freezes  it.  To  connect  protection  from  frost 
with  bodies  of  water,  therefore,  we  have  only  to  remember 
that  warm  air  rises  over  cold  air  whenever  it  has  a  chance. 
During  warm  days  in  winter  and  spring,  cold  air  from  over 
water  flows  up  into  the  vacant  space  left  over  land  by  warm 
air  rising.  This  prevents  trees  from  starting  growth  as  soon 
as  they  would  otherwise. 

Then  later,  when  spring  has  come  in  earnest  and  the  leaves 
and  blossoms  are  out,  water  and  land  both  get  warm  in  the 
daytime  but  along  comes  a  frost  at  night  and  cools  off  both 
the  land  and  its  air.  This  cold  air  flows  down  to  the  water,  to 
take  the  place  of  the  warmer  air  which  rises  from  the  water 
and  flows  back  over  the  land — and  over  the  tender  blossoms. 

That,  however,  is  not  quite  the  whole  science  of  water- 
protection  from  frost.  The  worst  frosts  come  when  the  air  is 
dry.  If  there  is  much  fog,  or  vapor,  or  moisture,  in  the  air, 
freezing  will  be  slight  or  entirely  absent.  An  example  of  this 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  zero  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  where  the 
atmosphere  is  moist,  actually  is  felt  more — seems  colder,  and 
is  colder — than  twenty  degrees  below  in  Manitoba  or  Colorado, 
where  the  air  is  much  drier. 

Any  water  air  will  be  damper  than  land  air,  so  frost  will  not 
freeze  so  hard  nor  so  quickly  near  bodies  of  water  as  the  same 
degree  of  cold  will  freeze  farther  inland.  If  moisture  is  pres- 
ent in  the  air,  from  a  shower,  from  ponds,  ditches,  spraying, 
or  watering,  it  will  act  to  prevent  freezing.  In  irrigated  sec- 
tions, a  large  amount  of  protection  from  frost  can  be  had  by 
turning  on  the  water,  and  so  filling  the  air  with  moisture. 
Where  there  are  only  a  few  plants  or  trees,  or  a  garden,  a 
thorough  sprinkling  or  wetting  is  the  best  possible  protection 

46 


Left:  Spreading  peach  trees  require  a  little  higher  head  than  others.    Right:  A  zinc  tag 
on  tree,  on  which  is  complete  record  of  that  tree's  history. 


Good  pruning  tools.   Note  wide  open  hand  shears,  and  pole  pruner — both  double  action. 

47 


Entirely  too  thick     31  peaches  here,  and  15  are  enough     Should  be  4  inches  apart. 


Evergreen  windbreak  at  a  sod-mulched  orchard,  proper  distance  between  break  and  trees 


Thinning  pears  and  apples,  also  nipping  tips  of  pear  tree.    June. 
48 


FROST  DAMAGE  TO  ORCHARDS 

against  frost,  and  this  often  is  a  most  practicable  method. 
One  quart  of  water  evaporated  into  the  air,  in  a  space  eighty 
feet  square  will  protect  against  frost  as  much  as  raising  the 
temperature  ten  degrees. 

A  slope  which  faces  the  water  usually  is  better  than  one 
exposed  the  other  way.  The  prevailing  strong  winds,  however, 
have  something  to  do  with  this,  as  well  as  sun  and  soil.  South 
and  west  slopes  are  not  so  good  as  others,  except  for  quinces 
and  grapes,  so  far  as  the  frost  problem  is  concerned.  A  body 
of  water  will  influence  the  temperature  to  a  useful  extent  up 
to  a  distance  of  from  five  to  fifteen  miles.  No  difficulty  will 
be  had  in  getting  local  information  on  this  point,  and  one 
season's  acquaintance  with  conditions  will  tell  the  story  pretty 
well. 

As  the  entire  country  from  Ontario  south  is  adapted  to  some 
or  all  of  the  fruits,  there  are  ten  times  as  many  inland  acres 
as  there  are  of  those  under  the  protection  of  bodies  of  water. 
Over  all  this  area  other  things  must  be  relied  on  to  control 
frost  trouble.  The  first  of  these  is  air  drainage — next  to  right 
varieties,  moisture,  fertility  and  pruning,  the  most  important 
requisite  for  success  with  fruit. 

The  greatest  danger  to  blossoms  from  frost  comes  during 
still  nights.  Frosts  seldom  come  when  a  wind  blows,  because, 
when  it  is  in  motion,  all  the  air  is  mixed  together  and  its  tem- 
perature is  uniform  throughout.  After  there  has  been  enough 
spring  warmth  to  produce  bloom,  nearly  always  enough  will 
be  stored  up  in  that  neighborhood  to  keep  the  temperature 
of  all  the  atmosphere  above  the  danger  point  if  it  is  distributed 
properly  by  air  movement  or  wind.  Air-drainage  is  air-move- 
ment by  gravity  when  the  wind  is  not  blowing. 

Air-drainage,  and  freezing  at  blossom-time,  depend  on 
comparative  height,  not  on  distance  above  sea-level.  It  does  not 
take  much  slope  or  drop  to  do  the  work,  although  several  hun- 
dred feet  will  do  no  harm.  Often  a  rise  of  ten  feet  will  mark 
the  line  between  frost  and  safety,  and  places  with  a  difference 
of  ten  feet  in  elevation  sometimes  will  show  a  difference  of 
ten  degrees  in  temperature. 

Warm  air  rises,  just  as  steam  does.  Cold  air  sinks,  just  as 
water  runs  down  hill.  Every  little  obstruction,  like  a  few  feet 
of  roll  in  the  surface,  a  hedge  or  windbreak,  even  the  dirt 
thrown  out  of  a  ditch,  will  cause  a  deflection  in  the  downward 
flow  of  cold  air,  and  may  protect  or  doom  the  plants  in  an  area 
alongside  of  it.  The  shoulder  of  a  hill,  a  hollow  or  a  valley 
will  direct  air-currents. 

When  it  strikes  an  obstruction  in  its  flow,  air  bounds  quite 
a  distance  away  from  the  earth,  and  does  not  come  down  again 
for  rods.  The  flow  of  air  to  the  sides  is  deflected  in  the  same 
manner.  We  can  only  hint  here  at  the  influences  of  various 
combinations  of  hills,  bluffs,  draws,  woods,  drops  and  land- 
angles.  No  rules  can  be  given  for  this.  By  studying  the  situ- 
ation you  nearly  always  can  tell  where  the  flows  of  cold  air 
will  be.  When  the  sun  goes  down,  the  earth  and  air  cool  rapidly. 
If  it  is  a  still  night,  the  natural  or  gravity  movement  of  the 

49 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

air  will  send  the  frosty  atmosphere  down,  down,  down,  to 
lower  levels,  by  any  open  paths  it  can  find. 

Of  course  the  exposed  top  of  a  mountain  is  likely  to  be 
affected  by  any  frost  in  the  air  on  still  nights,  but  here,  if  any- 
where, there  is  likely  to  be  a  breeze  to  drive  the  frost  away. 
The  sides  of  a  hill,  whether  benched  or  sloping,  usually  will 
be  free  from  frost  when  the  bottom  below  is  hoary.  Low  flats 
or  pockets  of  land  are  frost  traps,  as  they  catch  and  hold  the 
cold  air  that  drains  from  the  land  above.  If  a  valley  is  long, 
with  an  even  fall  and  few  obstructions,  there  may  be  a  good 
flow  of  air  along  its  floor.  This  will  prevent  frost.  In  such 
places  the  very  finest  lands  for  fruits  are  found,  because  of 
their  advantages  in  soil,  good  roads,  level  land,  etc. 

Air  drainage  of  any  piece  of  land  always  is  much  more 
important  than  its  exposure.  Conditions  on  a  northern  or 
eastern  slope  will  delay  blossoming-time  a  few  days;  but  if 
there  is  no  lower-lying  land  into  which  the  frosty  air  of  spring 
nights  can  drain,  blossoms  will  freeze  every  year  or  two.  For 
this  reason,  certain  tracts  of  land  otherwise  valuable  are  nearly 
worthless  for  fruit;  and  to  plant  an  orchard  on  them  invites 
failure,  or  at  least  an  immense  amount  of  work  in  fighting 
frost  every  year.  You  would  better  protect  your  trees  against 
the  frost  for  all  time  when  you  plant  them. 

Get  definite  information  about  frost,  if  possible.  During 
blooming-time  in  the  spring  before  you  plant  trees,  put  ther- 
mometers a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  on  stakes,  one  down  in 
the  lowest  pocket  on  your  place,  another  a  little  higher  up, 
and  still  others  at  every  twenty  or  thirty  feet  rise  all  the  way 
up  the  slope.  By  watching  these  thermometers  carefully  every 
hour  or  two  during  a  couple  of  nights  when  frost  threatens, 
you  will  get  all  the  information  needed,  and  know  the  strips 
of  land  to  avoid  because  of  frost.  Where  such  a  test  cannot 
be  made,  carefully  observe  the  lay  of  the  land  before  planting 
any  trees. 

The  relation  of  windbreaks  to  frost  damage  is  mixed.  Many 
times  they  prevent  freezing,  but  they  sometimes  are  the  direct 
cause  of  it.  For  this  purpose  we  can  class  a  strip  of  woods  as 
a  windbreak.  The  flow  of  air-currents  must  be  studied  to 
understand  the  situation.  When  cold  air  flows  from  higher 
land  on  a  still  night,  and  strikes  a  thick  windbreak,  it  rises  over 
the  tree  tops  and  flows  on  to  the  middle  of  the  orchard  before 
coming  down  among  the  fruit  trees.  This  will  cause  a  strip 
several  rods  wide  in  the  lee  of  the  break  to  become  badly 
frozen,  because  here  there  will  be  a  dead-air  space.  The  break 
forms  a  pocket  of  still  air  which  is  exactly  like  the  frost  trap 
formed  by  the  hills  in  the  bottom  down  below. 

If  the  break  had  been  thinner,  really  "breaking"  the  force 
of  the  wind,  and  not  altogether  stopping  its  motion,  there 
would  have  been  no  frost  alongside  of  it,  while  the  decided 
benefit  of  deflecting  the  cold  air  over  the  top  of  the  orchard 
trees  would  be  as  great  as  ever.  See  that  a  piece  of  woods 
next  to  your  orchard  does  not  subject  some  of  your  trees  to 
frost  injury. 

50 


FROST  DAMAGE  TO  ORCHARDS 

Orchard  heating  has  been  brought  to  a  thoroughly  efficient 
state  during  the  last  few  years,  in  Colorado  and  the  Pacific 
coast  fruit-belts.  It  is  a  recognized  feature  of  orchard  culture 
there,  and  is  included  in  plans  of  work  to  be  done  on  the  orchards 
just  the  same  as  are  pruning  and  spraying. 

Certain  situations  here  and  there  throughout  the  country 
are  so  exceptionally  favorable  for  fruit  in  other  ways  that 
planting  in  them  is  advisable,  even  though  the  situation  is 
known  to  be  frosty;  or  an  orchard  may  be  already  located 
where  blossoms  are  often  frozen;  or  once  or  twice  in  a  lifetime 
an  exceptionally  heavy  frost  may  in  blossoming-time  visit  an 
orchard  that  is  safe  all  other  years.  In  such  cases  artificial 
heating  will  save  a  great  deal  more  money  than  it  costs. 

Sometime  along  in  April  or  May  there  will  be  a  few  days 
of  warm  weather,  with  south  winds  and  showers  that  will 
start  buds  and  bloom.  Then,  in  a  few  hours,  the  wind  will 
shift  to  the  north  or  west  and  blow  the  clouds  away.  A  clear 
night  and  a  bright  morning  will  follow,  but  this  is  just  when 
to  look  for  the  worst  frosts.  Have  several  thermometers  here 
and  there  in  the  orchard  and  near  your  house,  about  six  feet 
from  the  ground.  Be  sure  your  thermometers  register  cor- 
rectly— some  don't.  When  danger  threatens,  watch  the  ther- 
mometers carefully,  especially  from  midnight  till  sunrise. 
Start  frost  fighting  while  the  thermometers  read  a  couple  of 
degrees  above  the  danger  point. 

The  Irishman  said  it  wasn't  the  fall  that  hurt  him,  but 
hitting  the  ground.  So,  it  is  not  the  freezing  so  much  as  the 
quick  thawing  afterward  which  causes  the  damage  to  blos- 
soms. If  we  can  get  something  to  prevent  this  quick  warming 
up,  and  make  our  frozen  flowers  thaw  out  gradually,  we  can 
reduce  the  final  damage  75  per  cent.  Clouds  will  do  this,  and  so 
will  artificial  clouds — smoke  for  instance — and  smoke  is  just  the 
thing  wanted  for  other  reasons. 

Every  one  has  noticed  that  the  weather  never  gets  very 
cold  when  the  sky  is  overcast  with  clouds.  We  might  say  safely 
that  frost  never  comes  when  there  are  low,  thick  clouds.  Ob- 
servation of  this  fact  led  orchardists  long  ago  to  adopt  smudg- 
ing as  a  frost  preventive.  The  smoke  makes  a  blanket 
which  shuts  out  colder  air  from  above  during  the  night,  then 
shields  frost-bitten  blossoms  from  the  sun's  rays  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  allows  time  to  warm  up  slowly. 

Some  growers  have  ready  piles  of  wet  brush,  straw  and 
leaves  about  the  edges  and  throughout  the  orchard  where 
the  fires  will  not  harm  the  trees.  Sometimes  oil  is  poured  on 
these  materials,  but  they  should  be  kept  as  full  of  water  as  they 
can  be  and  yet  burn.  When  the  temperature  goes  down  near 
the  danger  point  these  piles  are  lighted.  The  moisture  in  the 
fuel  is  valuable  in  three  ways — by  increasing  the  volume  of 
smoke,  which  covers  the  orchard,  by  loading  the  atmosphere 
with  water,  thus  lowering  the  danger  point,  and  by  making 
the  fuel  burn  more  slowly  and  last  longer. 

Sometimes,  when  the  frost  danger  is  slight,  a  burning  pile 
of  wet  straw  on  a  sled  or  wagon  hauled  here  and  there  through 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

the  orchard  will  save  much  fruit.  Elevate  the  material  on 
screen  wire  and  build  the  fire  on  a  layer  of  earth  in  the  bed 
under  it.  Where  the  heating  has  to  be  done  for  several  nights 
in  succession  a  mixture  of  tar,  straw  and  sawdust  will  be  found 
good.  The  ingenuity  of  the  man  whose  crop  is  threatened 
can  save  him  more  dollars  in  this  situation  than  in  almost 
any  other  which  comes  up.  Things  have  to  be  done  quickly, 
and  for  every  hour  of  time  there  are  four  hours'  work. 

Orchard  heaters,  made  of  sheet  iron,  in  various  forms, 
which  burn  coal,  wood,  or  oil,  always  should  be  installed  if 
heating  has  to  be  done  each  year.  The  study  of  heating  by 
this  method  would  make  a  book  in  itself.  Get  the  catalogues 
of  heater  manufacturers,  compare  their  products,  then  buy 
fifty  or  sixty  or  eighty  heaters  (one  hundred  or  more  if  oil 
heaters)  for  every  acre  you  have  to  protect.  Get  more  heaters 
than  you  ever  will  need  in  one  night.  Put  all  the  heaters  in 
position  long  before  the  time  they  will  be  needed.  Have  fuel 
and  everything  else  ready,  then  you  can  make  your  work  effect- 
ual. Tanks,  sheds,  fuel,  buckets,  torches,  etc.,  also  are  needed. 
It  will  cost  from  $500  to  $800  to  install  and  run  for  one  year 
a  heating  equipment  for  ten  acres. 

A  final  word  on  artificial  heating  is  this:  With  half-hearted 
preparation  you  cannot  save  the  crop,  and  you  will  be  out 
both  the  value  of  the  fruit  lost  and  the  cost  of  the  attempt 
to  save  it.  Remember  that  you  cannot  raise  the  temperature 
of  the  air  much  by  supplying  actual  heat — because,  however 
hot  the  fire  is,  the  heat  from  it  will  rush  up  above  the  trees 
and  will  be  replaced  by  colder  air  pushing  in  from  the  sides. 

Ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  influence  you  can  exert  on  the 
temperature  will  come  from  supplying  moisture  to  the  air,  which 
lowers  the  danger  point,  and  from  covering  your  trees  with 
dense  smoke,  thus  preventing  quick  thawing.  These  two  pro- 
cesses will  accomplish  the  purpose  if  given  a  chance,  but  do 
not  imagine  that  you  are  "warming  all  out-of-doors,"  as  a  great 
many  people  say.  In  some  parts  of  the  West  a  light  spraying 
of  water  while  fires  are  burning  helps  to  protect  trees.  Spray- 
ing trees  with  whitewash  in  winter  helps  protect  trees  against 
sun  scald,  winter  damage  and  spring  frosts. 

The  mulching  of  trees  while  snow  still  is  on  the  ground, 
to  delay  blossoming,  is  advised  sometimes.  A  mulch  that  is 
thick  enough  will  keep  the  ground  frozen  as  long  as  two  weeks 
after  grass  gets  green  on  sunny  places,  but  the  leafing-out  and 
blossoming  of  the  mulched  trees  will  not  be  delayed  more  than 
three  or  four  days.  The  reason  is  that  the  first  growth  in  spring — • 
the  first  leaves  and  blossoms — is  not  fed  from  the  roots,  but 
comes  directly  from  food  stored  in  the  wood  of  the  trees. 

You  can  prove  this  by  pulling  into  a  warm  room  in  mid- 
winter a  branch  of  a  tree  which  stands  close  to  the  window. 
Stop  up  the  hole  around  the  limb.  In  a  week  or  two  buds  will 
begin  to  swell  on  the  part  of  the  branch  inside,  and  in  a  month 
blossoms  will  open,  even  though  the  snow  may  be  four  feet 
deep  outside.  Or  break  off  a  twig  bearing  fruit  buds,  in  winter, 
and  put  it  in  water  in  a  warm,  light  room.  It  will  bloom. 

52 


FROST  DAMAGE  TO  ORCHARDS 

In  Ontario,  Michigan,  Kansas,  and  other  places  where  win- 
ters are  severe,  growers  have  found  it  practicable  to  protect 
their  more  tender  fruit  trees  by  training  the  roots  to  extend 
only  in  two  directions;  then,  every  fall  before  the  ground 
freezes  up,  they  dig  a  trench  on  one  of  the  sides  which  has  no 
roots,  pull  the  tree  over,  and  cover  top  and  all  with  straw  and 
earth.  Peach  and  other  trees  will  stand  this  treatment  and 
will  yield  well  under  it.  Orcharding  is  hard  business  under 
such  circumstances,  but  growers  in  cold  localities  may  find 
this  method  profitable  when  fruit  brings  high  prices  at  local 
markets  and  where  it  is  wanted  at  home. 

SUMMARY 

Cold  and  cool  weather  put  quality  into  fruit,  hence  higher 
elevations  and  northern  latitudes  produce  higher  quality  fruit 
than  lower  elevations  and  southerly  latitudes. 

Each  mile  north  or  south  equals  eight  feet  of  elevation;  or 
each  degree  of  latitude  equals  500  feet  of  elevation. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  lose  any  crops  from  spring  frosts. 

Proper  care  in  locating  trees,  in  cultivating,  etc.,  will  help 
prevent  frost  damage.  Nearby  bodies  modify  temperature. 
Air  drainage  is  the  prime  frost-damage  preventive,  and  is 
more  important  than  exposure  or  soil  or  elevation.  Air-drainage 
is  governed  by  the  lay  of  the  land — by  comparative  elevations 
— and  by  draws,  shoulders  of  hills,  slopes,  hollows,  valleys,  etc. 

Test    your    orchard    location    with    reliable    thermometers. 

Windbreaks  prevent  frost  damage  when  they  "break"  the 
force  of  wind  and  do  not  altogether  stop  its  motion.  A  piece 
of  woods  will  cause  a  dead  air-space,  in  which  blossoms  will 
surely  freeze. 

Artificial  heating,  when  rightly  done,  is  effective  in  prevent- 
ing frost  damage.  Begin  the  work  before  the  temperature 
reaches  the  danger  point. 

Get  plenty  of  moisture  into  the  air  by  wetting  the  fuel,  or 
spraying  trees  with  water.  Moisture  in  the  air  lowers  the  danger 
point  and  prevents  frost  damage. 

Quick  thawing  is  worse  than  bad  freezing.  Cover  frozen 
blossoms  with  smoke  and  prevent  the  sun  from  striking  them 
in  the  morning. 

Adding  moisture  and  insuring  slow  thawing  are  the  methods 
you  have  of  preventing  frost  danger, — you  cannot  do  much 
by  directly  adding  heat  to  the  air. 


53 


Planting 


IN  the  spring  of  1911,  two  men  were  driving  past  a  neighbor's 
farm  in  a  northern  state,  and  were  talking  about  the  neigh- 
bor's   new    apple    orchard,  which   contained    five    hundred 
trees,  one  year  old.   "He  will  never  make  anything  out  of  them," 
said  one  man,  "because  one  of  the  surest  signs  of  what  the 
future  of  an  orchard  will  be  is  how  it  was  started,  and  this 
one  has  been  started  wrongly  in  several  ways. 

"In  the  first  place,  his  trees  are  propagated  from  inferior 
parents.  Half  of  them  he  budded  himself,  because  he  thought 
he  could  grow  them  cheaper  than  to  buy  them,  and  he  got 

the  buds  from  the  old  Baldwin  trees  on  the place.   Those 

trees  never  did  bear  right.  The  other  half  were  bought  from 
a  nurseryman  that  I  know  has  little  idea  whether  or  not  the 
buds  used  came  from  trees  that  bear  regularly  and  well.  Then 
he  has  set  a  solid  block  of  the  one  kind.  He  has  made  other 
mistakes  in  planting,  but  these  two  have  already  condemned 
his  efforts  to  failure." 

This  incident  of  wrong  practice  so  impressed  itself  on  our 
minds  that  we  give  it  here.  In  the  first  place,  you  want  trees 
that  are  true  to  name,  and  that  come  from  parents  which  bear 
big  crops  of  flawless  fruit.  We  all  know  that  no  two  trees  in  an 
old  orchard  bear  the  same,  even  if  they  are  of  the  same  variety. 
Some  bear  better  than  others.  A  bud  will  make  a  new  tree 
having  the  same  characteristics  as  the  tree  from  which  the 
bud  was  cut;  so,  right  at  the  start,  avoid  one  great  limiter  of 
your  success — the  poor  trees — and  give  yourself  a  chance  to 
succeed.  Get  trees  that  have  been  propagated  from  trees  which 
are  bearing,  and  bearing  as  they  should.  If  possible,  make  the 
nurseryman  tell  you  where  his  buds  came  from,  and  see  these 
parent  trees  if  you  can. 

It  would  seem  almost  foolish  to  tell  an  intelligent  planter 
to  be  sure  that  his  trees  are  true  to  name,  yet  recently  we  were 
in  the  packing-house  of  the  president  of  a  state  horticultural 
society,  who  is  himself  a  large  grower.  He  had  many  bushels 
of  very  small,  insipid  peaches  he  was  trying  to  get  rid  of.  We 
asked  him  what  they  were,  and  he  replied  that  they  grew  on 
trees  he  got  as  Crawford's  Late,  from  a  nursery  nearby,  taking 
their  word  that  the  trees  were  right,  even  while  he  knew  they 
had  not  grown  the  trees  themselves. 

There  are  a  few  reliable  growers  of  fruit  trees  in  this  country, 
and  there  are  hundreds  of  irresponsible  dealers,  and  growers 
who  produce  trees  as  cheaply  as  possible.  Some  of  the  dealers 
will  buy  a  few  thousand  trees  at  wholesale  from  the  unknown 
and  unreliable  growers,  whose  only  care  is  to  deliver  some- 
thing with  a  few  roots  and  a  top,  and  who  care  little  what  kind 
they  supply,  or  what  their  trees  will  turn  out  to  be,  then  "go 
into  the  nursery  business"  and  say  they  "grow"  first-class 
stock.  The  dealer  cannot  find  out  where  his  trees  came  from. 
Orders  for  different  varieties  often  are  filled  from  the  same 
block  of  trees.  These  trees  usually  are  offered  cheaply,  yet 

54 


PRINCIPLES    OF    GOOD    PLANTING 

there  are  plenty  of  instances  in  which  they  have  been  sold 
for  almost  double  a  fair  price. 

Planters  can  avoid  all  risk  by  buying  trees  from  a  nursery 
that,  first,  grows  all  its  own  trees,  and  second,  gets  its  buds 
from  good  bearing  trees,  and  points  out  to  you  those  trees.  This 
beats  all  hollow  a  guarantee  to  repay  you  for  damage  sustained 
by  reason  of  wrong  varieties.  Visit  the  nursery  yourself  and  select 
your  trees.  Get  the  best  you  can  find.  There  is  only  a  dollar  or 
two  difference  between  the  cost  of  the  best  and  of  the  poorest, 
and  the  ultimate  difference  to  you  will  be  many,  many  times 
this. 

"The  best  trees"  usually  are  of  medium  size  for  their  kind 
and  of  the  proper  age.  They  are  not  always  straight  and  clean. 
Some  kinds  do  not  grow  that  way.  Bear  in  mind  the  nature 
of  the  variety,  compare  the  different  trees  you  see  of  that  same 
kind,  then  pick  out  those  that  look  best  to  you.  Vigor,  clean- 
liness, health,  good  roots,  and  firm,  hard,  well-ripened  wood 
are  much  more  important  than  size.  If  you  buy  from  a  nursery 
that  grows  its  own  trees,  and  takes  the  trouble  to  keep  track 
properly  of  its  buds,  you  can  depend  on  it  to  do  the  budding 
right  and  deliver  to  you  trees  which  are  as  sound  as  they  can 
be  grown. 

It  is  generally  best,  especially  north  of  Virginia,  to  order 
trees  in  late  summer  or  early  fall,  and  have  them  delivered 
to  you  either  in  time  for  heeling-in  that  fall,  or  have  them  dug 
and  heeled-in  at  the  nursery  for  you,  then  shipped  as  soon  as 
zero  weather  is  past,  in  time  for  planting  the  first  day  in  late 
winter  or  early  spring  that  the  ground  is  in  shape.  Cover  tops 
and  all  with  dirt  when  you  heel-in,  use  no  straw.  Fall  planting 
is  good  if  done  at  the  right  time  and  if  trees  are  in  good  shape. 
In  an  average  fall,  there  is  only  a  week  or  so  during  which  plant- 
ing ought  to  be  done.  Fall-planted  trees  make  some  root  growth 
during  fall  and  winter,  but  spring-planted  trees,  if  put  in  early 
enough,  will  be  safer,  and  will  not  be  behind  those  planted 
the  fall  before,  in  growth.  In  the  fall  you  get  the  pick  of  the 
season's  tree  crop,  and  planting  is  not  delayed  because  you  do 
not  have  trees  at  the  right  time.  Try  to  get  low  prices,  but 
still  do  not  buy  trees  because  they  are  cheap.  Frequently 
the  advice  is  given  to  buy  trees  of  the  nearest  nursery.  That 
is  mighty  poor  advice.  Buy  trees  from  the  nursery  best  equipped 
to  produce  good  trees.  Buy  the  best  trees  you  can  get.  Don't 
worry  about  the  distance  away  or  about  getting  the  trees  to 
your  place.  Good  packing  will  bring  trees  in  perfect  condi- 
tion anywhere.  Freight  charges  across  the  continent  are  no 
more  than  two  or  three  cents  a  tree  and  through  a  half-dozen 
states  they  are  likely  to  be  only  one  cent  a  tree. 

This  book  is  a  fruit-grower's  guide  book,  and  we  have  tried 
to  keep  it  clear  of  any  reference  to  our  own  business  of  growing 
trees  except  to  give  our  experiences  for  your  benefit.  But 
here  we  want  to  tell  you,  as  a  fact  valuable  for  any  planter  to 
know,  that  we  can  give  you  the  pedigree  of  every  tree  we  sell. 
We  will  show  you.  the  parent  tree  or  trees,  if  you  care  to  go  to 
see  them,  bearing  in  the  most  successful  orchards  of  the  coun- 

55 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

try.  We  grow  practically  every  tree  we  sell,  and  we  have  a 
system  that  almost  entirely  eliminates  any  possibility  of  mixing 
varieties.  More  than  that,  we  handle  immense  numbers  of  trees 
every  season,  and  the  feeding,  cultivation,  digging,  packing  and 
shipping  are  done  in  a  manner  better  than  any  firm  operating 
on  a  smaller  scale  can  do  these  things.  We  know  this,  for  now 
we  do  many  things  that  are  to  the  planter's  advantage  which 
we  could  not  do  a  few  years  ago,  when  we  were  smaller. 

Cross  pollination  is  a  subject  too  little  understood.  In  the 
chapters  on  each  fruit  we  say  that  the  only  safe  way  is  to  alter- 
nate different  varieties  to  a  certain  extent.  Put  a  row  of  a 
different  kind  every  three,  four  or  five  rows.  About  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  is  far  enough  to  depend  on  pollen  carrying. 
Insufficient  pollination  will  result,  first,  in  entire  lack  of  fruit; 
and  second,  in  weak  setting  of  some  fruits,  making  crooked, 
gnarly  individual  specimens  the  rule. 

Blossoms  are  of  three  kinds.  One  class  is  perfect;  that  is 
it  contains  within  its  own  borders  both  the  male  and  the  female 
elements.  This  kind  of  blossom  may  or  may  not  be  able  to 
fertilize  itself;  sometimes  it  can,  but  often  it  cannot,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  large  majority  of  apple  blossoms.  A  second  class 
of  blossoms  is  male;  that  is,  it  has  only  the  stamens — the  little 
upright  hairs  that  you  see  in  the  middle  of  the  flowers.  A  third 
class  is  female  only,  and  has  no  stamens,  but  merely  a  fleshy 
growth  at  the  bottom  or  center  of  the  flower.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  kinds  which  bear  both  male  and  female  blos- 
soms on  different  twigs,  and  a  very  few  which  are  able  to  fer- 
tilize themselves,  all  other  kinds,  of  any  class,  require  a  variety 
of  the  opposite  class  near  enough  so  that  some  of  the  pollen 
from  the  other  kind  of  blossoms  will  reach  their  blossoms  with 
the  help  of  wind  and  bees. 

Certain  varieties  have  blossoms,  perfect  to  all  appearance, 
yet  are  impotent  in  so  far  as  their  own  blossoms  are  concerned. 
There  are  many  affinities  among  the  different  varieties.  For 
instance,  Bartlett  pear  is  fertilized  best  by  Winter  Nelis,  Kieffer 
by  LeConte,  Stayman  Winesap  apple  by  Duchess  or  Mcln- 
tosh,  and  so  on  through  the  list.  Whatever  you  are  planting, 
see  that  you  set  trees  of  different  varieties  within  reach  of  each 
other,  and  also  that  their  times  of  blossoming  come  together; 
that  is,  set  near  each  other  two  early  bloomers,  or  two  late 
bloomers,  but  not  an  early-  and  a  late-blooming  kind.  Select 
the  varieties  before  you  go  to  buy.  Determine  what  you  want, 
with  reference  to  all  the  conditions  that  will  have  to  be  met, 
then  get  those  kinds.  In  this  way  you  will  have  no  trouble 
about  substitution  of  varieties  in  filling  your  order. 

Select  the  location  for  your  orchard  with  reference  to  ex- 
posure; to  air-drainage  and  other  frost-damage  factors;  to  the 
character  of  the  soil,  and  particularly  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
soil. Roots  have  to  go  down  three  or  four  feet.  If  there  is  close 
underlying  slate  or  hardpan,  avoid  that  land  unless  you  break 
up  this  hardpan  thoroughly  and  permanently.  The  section 
of  the  country  is  of  little  real  importance.  Delaware  orchardists 
are  near  markets,  and  their  soil  is  worked  easily.  West  Vir- 

56 


Spraying-house  of  a  large  orchard,    Note  elevated  tanks  for  water  and  nurtures. 


Top-worked  trees;  ieft,  tnree  years  from  graft;  right,  five  years.   Both  bear. 


Badly  split  tree  saved  by  bolting     Good  for  a  lifetime  yet,  and  worth  $50. 

57 


Left:    Leaves  affected  by  cedar  rust.    Right:    Leaves  and  fruit  affected  by  blotch. 


Left:  Frog-eye  fungus  on  apple  leaves.    Right:  Characteristic  bitter  rot 


Left:  Scab  on  leaves  and  fruit.    Right:  Curl  leaf  fungus  on  peach  leaves. 

58 


PRINCIPLES    OF    GOOD    PLANTING 

ginia  and  Pennsylvania  lands  are  high  and  grow  the  best  qual- 
ity of  fruit;  New  England  is  farther  north  and  claims  superior 
flavor  and  keeping  qualities;  Oregon  is  far  west  and  claims 
superior  color.  Whether  much  or  little  is  in  these  claims,  what 
is  lost  in  one  place  is  balanced  by  a  gain  in  another  place.  So, 
plant  your  trees  where  you  can  do  it  best. 

Avoid  setting  trees  too  close  together.  They  feed  over  a 
wide  area  if  they  have  the  opportunity,  and  they  are  the  better 
for  it.  Our  plan  is  to  set  three  peach  trees  to  one  standard  ap- 
ple. Where  peach  trees  are  used  as  fillers,  we  get  from  fifty  to 
two  hundred  trees  on  an  acre,  depending  on  many  things.  With 
apples  you  will  get  more  cash  returns  from  thirty  trees  on  an 
acre,  in  the  East,  than  from  sixty  on  an  acre.  Some  varieties, 
however,  are  naturally  smaller  growers  than  others,  and  can 
be  planted  closer;  also  the  section  has  something  to  do  with 
it.  For  instance,  trees  grow  bigger  in  Pennsylvania  or  Delaware 
than  in  Michigan  or  the  West.  The  system  of  pruning  you  are 
going  to  adopt,  as  well  as  the  price  of  land,  has  something  to 
do  with  the  distance  the  trees  should  be  apart.  Leave  plenty 
of  room  for  spraying,  cultivating,  driving  about  with  wagons, 
etc.  Keep  the  trees  far  enough  away  from  boundary  fences, 
and  never  plant  them  closer  than  forty  feet  (one  hundred 
feet  is  better)  to  thick  woods  or  an  evergreen  windbreak. 
Privet  needs  only  twenty  feet,  and  in  most  sections  is  as  good 
as  any  known  plant  for  windbreaks.  Fillers,  of  course,  alter  the 
distances  given,  as  they  merely  occupy  the  ground  before  the 
premanent  trees  get  big  enough.  The  following  gives  the 
shortest  distances  at  which  trees  should  be  set: 

Apple  trees  need  fifty,  forty,  or  thirty  feet  between  one 
another,  depending  on  various  conditions  named  above  (dwarfs 
ten  to  fifteen);  pears  twenty,  twenty-five  or  thirty;  quinces 
fifteen  to  eighteen;  peaches  thirteen,  eighteen,  twenty-one 
to  twenty-five  feet;  plums  fifteen,  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet; 
sour  cherries  the  same  as  peaches,  and  sweet  cherries  the  same 
as  pears  (in  some  sections  forty  to  fifty  feet);  grapes  should  be 
put  six  by  eight  feet  to  eight  by  ten  feet;  strawberries  from 
eighteen  inches  each  way  to  one  by  four  feet;  raspberries  from 
three  by  six  to  five  by  eight  feet;  and  blackberries  from  four 
by  seven  to  six  by  nine  feet. 

Fillers  always  are  to  be  recommended  to  careful  growers. 
If  you  think  you  will  not  use  your  trees  right  while  they  are 
growing,  or  that  you  will  lack  the  determination  to  cut  out 
the  nicely  bearing  fillers  when  they  are  about  twelve  years 
old,  do  not  plant  fillers,  for  these  things  must  be  done.  But 
no  business  farmer  will  think  of  going  to  the  expense  of  growing 
a  first-class  apple  or  pear  orchard  without  planting  early-bear- 
ing sorts  of  these  same  fruits,  or  of  peaches  or  strawberries, 
between  his  permanent  trees.  To  use  fillers  makes  the  orchard 
a  paying  investment  considering  it  on  a  five-  to  eight-year 
basis;  while  without  them  you  will  have  to  take  fifteen  years, 
or  even  longer,  as  the  time  in  which  you  are  "starting"  your 
future  orchard,  or  before  you  get  back  the  entire  cost  and  be- 
gin to  see  a  yearly  surplus. 

59 


HOW    TO    GROW  AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  trees  that  can  be 
set  on  an  acre  by  the  square  method,  and  by  the  triangular, 
(called  quincunx,  or  hexagonal  also)  method: 

Square  Triangular 

method  method 

40  feet  apart 27  31 

35  feet  apart 35  4° 

30  feet  apart 50  55 

20  feet  apart 70  80 

20  feet  apart no  125 

18  feet  apart 135  155 

15  feet  apart 195  225 

12  feet  apart 305  350 

10  feet  apart 435  505 

8  feet  apart 680  675 

6  feet  apart 1,210  1,600 

5  feet  apart i,74S  2,010 

4  feet  apart 2,725  3,145 

3  feet  apart 4,840  4,890 

2  feet  apart 10,560  12,575 

i  foot  apart 43, 560  50,300 

Trees  sometimes  can  be  planted  to  advantage  farther  apart 
one  way  than  another.  To  do  this,  you  have  to  work  out  the 

Elan  for  your  own  orchards.     This  plan  works  best  on  steep 
ills.     The  rows  should  follow  the  lines  of    the  hill    to  make 
driving  easier.    No  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  hillside  arrange- 
ment.   Use  some  modification  of  the  plans  given  here. 

The  triangular  method  of  arrangement  is  the  best  for  those 
trees  which  should  have  more  than  eighteen  feet  between. 
We  illustrate  it  here.  The  square  system  and  the  many  vari- 
ations of  each  system  are  not  shown,  as  they  are  very  simple 
and  are  understood  everywhere.  In  the  triangular  system 
each  tree  is  at  an  equal  distance  from  all  of  its  nearest  neigh- 
bors, and  all  of  the  ground  is  used  as  completely  as  it  can  be. 
In  the  square  system,  the  diagonal  distance  across  the  squares 
is  longer  than  the  sides,  so  there  is  waste  space  in  the  middle 
of  the  square.  To  mark  out  the  position  for  trees  by  the  tri- 
angular plan,  set  stakes  along  one  side  of  your  orchard  land, 
•just  where  the  trees  are  to  go.  Then,  with  two  helpers,  take  a 
wire  a  little  longer  than  the  distance  you  want  the  trees  apart, 
put  a  loop  at  each  end  and  one  in  the  middle,  leaving  the 
length  then  just  exactly  right,  and  direct  each  of  your  help- 
ers to  take  an  end  loop  and  hold  it  at  a  stake.  You,  with 
the  middle  loop,  will  step  out  into  the  field,  and  when  you  have 
stretched  the  wire,  you  will  have  the  exact  place  for  the  tree. 
Drive  a  stake  there,  and  continue  in  the  same  manner  all  the 
way  across  the  field.  Many  variations  of  this  can  be  practiced. 
Do  not  use  a  strap  or  a  rope,  for  they  will  stretch.  A  single 
wire,  to  go  to  one  stake,  will  do,  if  you  cannot  get  more  than 
one  helper.  In  that  case,  mark  a  semicircle  with  a  stick  in  your 
loop,  about  where  you  think  the  place  is,  then  send  your  helper 
to  the  second  stake  and  make  another  semicircle.  Where  the 
marks  cross  is  the  place  for  the  tree.  This  plan  will  work  per- 
fectly on  hills  and  rough  land. 

You  also  can  fix  the  positions  for  the  first  few  trees  on  an  end 
and  a  side  with  a  tape  or  any  measure,  and  then,  from  these, 

60 


PRINCIPLES    OF    GOOD    PLANTING 

get  the  distance  between  the  rows,  or  lines,  of  trees,  directly, 
and  set  stakes  at  the  ends  of  these  on  all  four  sides;  then  plow 
furrows,  or  stretch  a  wire  (about  No.  14,  with  drops  of  solder 
and  colored  strings  wrapped  on  the  proper  distance  apart 
for  the  trees)  completely  across  the  field  where  the  row  will 
stand,  and  put  the  trees  the  distance  apart  decided  on  origin- 
ally. The  square  method  of  setting  is  simple,  and,  if  it  is  wanted, 
any  one  quickly  will  think  of  an  adaptation  of  some  of  these 
plans  for  getting  the  position  of  each  tree.  A  way  to  avoid 
setting  a  stake  exactly  where  the  tree  is  to  stand  is  to  set  a  row 
of  stakes  entirely  around  the  orchard  land,  and  then  set  two 
rows  entirely  across  the  middle,  in  opposite  directions,  being 
careful  to  get  these  center  stakes  between  tree  rows. 

Anywhere  you  look,  in  this  way,  you  will  have  two  stakes 
to  sight  by.  The  stakes  can  be  so  arranged  that  trees  can  be 
set  either  on  the  square  or  triangular  plan,  by  carefully  think- 
ing out  beforehand  in  which  directions  the  rows  will  run,  and  the 
positions  of  the  trees,  then  setting  the  stakes  accordingly.  If 
you  adopt  this  plan,  and  keep  the  stakes  away  from  the  posi- 
tion for  the  trees,  you  will  not  need  the  following.  But  it  takes 
a  good  eye  to  set  trees  straight  in  holes,  and  here  is  a  surer 
plan:  After  you  have  a  stake  exactly  where  each  tree  is  to  go, 
get  a  board  seven  feet  long,  with  a  wooden  pin  about  six  inches 
long  sticking  down  from  each  end,  one  pin  tight,  the  other 
loose,  and  with  a  deep  notch  in  the  middle  of  the  board.  When 
you  dig  the  tree  holes,  first  lay  this  board  down  (always  with 
the  same  side  up  and  notch  ahead)  with  the  stake  in  the  notch, 
push  the  pins  into  the  ground,  then  pull  out  the  stake,  lift 
the  end  of  the  board  which  has  the  removable  pin,  and  turn 
it  around  out  of  the  way.  When  you  are  ready  to  plant  the 
tree,  bring  the  board  back  again,  drop  the  end  with  the  hole 
over  its  pin,  which  is  still  sticking  where  you  left  it,  and  set 
the  tree  with  the  trunk  in  the  notch. 

Where  there  are  more  than  a  couple  of  dozen  trees  to  plant, 
it  is  best  to  double-stake  the  whole  orchard  before  holes  are 
dug.  This  is  the  way  to  do  when  you  use  dynamite  in  digging 
the  tree  holes.  Instead  of  having  one  pin  solid  in  the  board, 
merely  have  two  holes  through  which  to  drive  small  stakes 
that  are  left  at  each  hole.  After  the  holes  are  blown  out  or 
dug,  and  when  you  go  to  plant,  put  the  board  over  the  stakes 
again,  and  get  the  exact  position  for  the  tree  at  the  notch. 

Unpack  trees  as  soon  as  you  get  them,  unless  they  are 
frozen.  (In  that  case  let  them  thaw  out  slowly  in  a  cool  cellar.) 
Shake  out  packing  material,  dip  the  roots  in  mud,  and  either 
plant  or  heel-in  at  once.  If  you  heel-in,  cover  tops  and  all 
with  dirt.  Young  trees  should  be  well  cut  back  at  the  time  of 
planting,  as  directed  in  the  pruning  chapter,  in  order  to  get  a 
balance  between  the  amount  of  roots  and  the  amount  of  top. 
Half,  or  more,  of  the  roots  always  are  destroyed  in  digging  trees, 
even  with  the  most  careful  work  that  can  be  done,  so  we  must 
cut  back  the  top  to  correspond.  All  damaged  roots  should  be 
cut  off  smoothly  with  the  slant  on  the  under  side.  The  tops 
should  be  cut  down  to  where  you  want  the  heads  to  start 

61 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

(usually  twelve  to  twenty  inches  from  the  ground.)  This  can 
be  done  best  a  week  or  a  month  after  the  trees  are  set.  The 
branches  should  be  shortened  at  the  same  time. 

Dip  the  roots  into  thin  mud,  spread  them  in  carefully  pre- 
pared holes  (dynamited  if  possible)  that  are  wide  enough  and 
deep  enough  to  hold  the  roots  without  cramping.  Work  good, 
fine  dirt  in  among  the  roots  thoroughly.  Ram  it  in  with  a 
stick.  Move  the  tree  up  and  down  repeatedly.  Pack  the  dirt 
well.  You  cannot  get  it  too  solid  about  roots,  except  two  inches 
on  the  surface,  which  should  be  loose.  Use  your  whole  weight, 
or  better,  pack  with  a  heavy  maul.  Leave  no  air-spaces. 

Do  not  let  the  roots  lie  exposed  to  sun  or  wind.  Never  let 
them  dry.  Cover  the  roots  with  a  wet  blanket,  pack  them  in 
a  tight  wagon-box  and  cover  with  dirt  or  wet  straw,  or  load 
the  trees  into  a  barrel  filled  with  water,  and,  as  planted,  pour 
a  little  of  the  water  about  each  one.  Trees  should  go  just  a 
little  deeper  than  they  were  in  the  nursery.  Watch  the  dark 
line  of  bark  at  the  base,  and  put  this  an  inch  below  the  surface. 
It  often  is  a  good  plan  to  use  water  in  planting.  The 
surface  of  the  newly  dag  earth,  for  a  couple  of  feet  about  the 
little  trees,  should  be  covered  with  a  six-inch  mulch  of  straw 
or  leaves,  to  retain  the  moisture.  Trees  will  need  no  fertilizing 
till  the  second  summer,  when  a  little  nitrate  of  soda  or  horse 
manure  will  do  good  work. 

SUMMARY 

Get  trees  that  you  know  are  right — the  importance  of  this 
cannot  be  over  emphasized. 

To  be  sure  of  reliable  trees  you  must  buy  them  from  a  firm 
that  is  responsible — that  knows  how  to  propagate  trees,  works 
by  a  system  that  prevents  the  possibility  of  mistakes,  and  backs 
up  their  stock  till  it  bears. 

Good  trees  are  true  to  name,  and  are  propagated  from  parents 
that  bear  heavy  crops  of  flawless  fruit.  See  the  parent  trees 
whenever  possible. 

Always  visit  the  nursery  and  select  your  trees  yourself  when 
it  is  possible.  It  pays. 

Buy  the  most  vigorous,  cleanest,  healthiest,  best  ripened, 
biggest  rooted  trees  you  can  find  anywhere — the  best  will  cost 
only  a  few  dollars  per  hundred  more  than  poor  ones. 

Select  and  place  your  trees  with  regard  to  cross  pollination. 
Lack  of  pollination  is  a  frequent  cause  of  small  and  poor  crops. 

When  you  plant,  consider  air,  drainage,  soil,  etc.  Always 
arrange  trees  by  a  handy  system,  and  put  them  far  enough 
apart. 

Use  fillers — and  cut  them  out  in  time. 

Trees  must  be  planted  just  at  the  right  time.  A  dollar's 
worth  of  care  in  planting  will  save  many  dollars'  worth  of  trees. 
Follow  the  suggestions  given  here. 

Don't  forget  to  mulch  newly  set  trees. 

We  plant  standard  apple  trees  20  by  20  feet,  and  cut  out 
fillers  when  12  to  20  years  of  age. 

62 


Caused  by  woolly  aphis,  by  partially  freezing  buds,  winter  or  spring,  and  by  poor  pollination. 


Incrustation-San  Jose  Scale 


San  Jose  attacks  both  bark  and  fruit,  and  infects  Ben  Davis  very  badly. 


Cluster  Buds-Proper  Stage  for  First  Scab  Sprayin 


During  only  two  to  four  days  are  the  buds  in  best  condition  for  this  spraying. 

63 


Put  the  material  on  with  force,  drive  it  into  every  nook.  Get  a  machine  that  will  do  this. 


Blossoms — Stage  to  spray  for  codlin  moth.  Four  days  later  half  the  worms  would  escape. 


A  practicable  spraying  outfit  for  small  orchards,  and  where  trees  are  small. 

64 


Pruning 


FEW  understand  what  pruning  really  is,  hence  it  is  necessary 
to  explain  from  nature.  To  cause  trees  to  reproduce  them- 
selves is  Nature's  principal  object;  she  bids  each  grow  high 
and  thick  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  produce  as  many  seeds  as 
possible,  without  regard  to  the  flesh  in  which  they  are  contained. 
A  tree  will  produce  a  thousand  seeds  for  every  one  that  possibly 
could  find  a  place  to  grow.  The  stronger  choke  back  the  weaker 
and  all  damage  themselves  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 

In  the  orchard  we  have  left  nature's  plan  behind,  and  the 
trees  no  longer  have  to  fight  for  space,  light  and  food.  In  the 
sunny,  cultivated  spaces,  where  they  are  not  kept  back  by  one 
another,  they  grow  too  fast  and  too  much,  and  naturally  pro- 
duce too  many  seeds.  This  brings  the  necessity  of  pruning  and 
thinning,  or,  rather,  the  necessity  of  training  the  trees  to  so 
shape  themselves  that  they  will  ripen  the  largest  number  of 
heavy-fleshed  fruits,  with  less  regard  to  seeds. 

We  prune,  therefore,  to  modify  the  vigor  of  trees;  to  make 
them  produce  larger  and  better  fruits;  to  let  the  sunlight  in 
to  every  leaf  and  fruit;  to  change  their  habit  from  wood-mak- 
ing to  fruit-making,  or  from  fruit-making  to  wood-making, 
as  required;  to  remove  useless,  harmful  or  injured  parts;  to 
give  trees  a  longer  life;  to  keep  trees  within  manageable  size 
to  make  easier  the  spraying,  cultivation,  harvesting,  and  to 
train  them  to  a  desired  form. 

Trees  are  living  things,  and  are  affected  by  everything  we  do 
to  them.  Too  often  they  are  used  as  though  they  were  dead 
posts.  We  cannot  remove  a  single  branch  without  modifying 
every  other  branch  on  that  tree.  A  tree  thus  can  be  trained  or 
molded  to  a  remarkable  extent,  and  he  who  prunes  intelligently 
will  surely  get  good  results. 

But  pruning  has  to  be  learned  by  experience.  We  can 
explain  the  principles,  but  to  acquire  skill  in  accomplishing 
the  results  you  desire,  you  must  do  the  work  yourself  and  watch 
the  effect  from  year  to  year.  No  two  trees  are  alike.  No  two 
branches  are  alike.  The  rules  laid  down  must  be  modified  to 
fit  each  kind  of  tree  and  even  each  single  tree.  For  instance, 
Kieffer  Pears  must  be  handled  differently  from  Seckel;  Spy 
apples  differently  from  King.  To  work  over  a  tree  and  give  it 
the  care  that  it  needs,  as  an  individual,  is  one  of  the  most 
fascinating  operations  in  orcharding. 

Think  first  of  securing  the  best  possible  shape  and  size.  For 
all  practical  purposes  and  for  most  trees  a  low  head  and  an 
open  head  is  what  you  want — low,  because  you  can  work  over 
it  better;  open,  to  let  the  sunlight  and  air  reach  all  the  leaves 
and  fruits.  (Trees  feed  from  both  roots  and  leaves.)  There 
are  other  considerations,  such  as  having  the  head  well  bal- 
anced, good  to  look  upon,  and  carrying  the  largest  possible 
amount  of  fruit-bearing  wood  that  the  roots  can  feed;  avoiding 
forks  that  will  split  apart  under  a  load;  keeping  branches 
growing  into  the  prevailing  wind  and  away  from  the  morning 

65 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

sun  (against  tendencies  to  the  opposites  of  these),  and  leaving 
space  under  the  branches  for  horses  and  tools. 

Keep  these  words  before  you  as  you  work  about  the  trees — 
"a  low  head  and  an  open  head."  They  will  suggest  the  removal 
of  this  and  of  that  little  limb,  the  pinching  of  tips  here  and 
there,  the  leaving  of  others.  A  well-trained  tree  that  has  reached 
bearing  age  in  good  form  can  be  kept  right  with  very  little 
cutting  afterward.  Few  trees  need  .central  leaders — only 
those  of  the  plums,  pears,  apples,  etc.,  which  grow  very  up- 
right in  the  spring,  and  then  spread  away  out  as  the  fruit 
develops.  Some  horticulturists  advise  us  not  'to  remove  big 
limbs  when  we  can  avoid  it.  We  do  not  agree  with  that,  for 
limbs  should  be  removed  when  there  is  a  reason  for  it,  even  if 
they  are  a  foot  thick.  Of  course  the  work  must  be  done 
right,  as  explained  later.  Still,  the  time  to  remove  limbs  is 
when  you  can  do  it  with  your  fingers — pinching  buds — or  with 
light  pruning-shears  or  a  pocket-knife.  Direct  the  growth  to 
where  it  is  needed. 

Remember  this:  A  limb  never  gets  any  higher  from  the 
ground  that  it  was  when  it  started.  Decide  when  you  plant 
and  first  prune  where  you  want  the  head  of  your  trees  to  start. 
Some  trees  have  to  be  cut  back  to  a  mere  stick,  as  is  correct 
with  peach;  with  other  kinds,  such  as  apple  and  quince  trees 
old  enough  to  be  branched,  you  have  to  select,  then  and  there, 
the  limbs  you  want  for  the  framework  of  the  head,  and  nip 
these  back  to  buds  growing  in  the  direction  you  want  the 
branches  to  continue.  One  big  grower  likes  to  have  one  main 
trunk  from  which  the  five  or  six  frame-limbs  grow  out  in  a 
rising  spiral;  others  prefer  to  have  all  the  limbs  start  at  nearly 
the  same  height;  but  all  agree  that  no  two  limbs  should  be 
opposite  each  other,  because  this  will  form  a  fork  that  will 
split. 

Trees  are  just  as  free  with  their  buds  while  young  as  they 
are  with  seeds  when  older.  Hundreds  of  buds  are  produced 
for  every  branch  or  blossom  that  can  grow.  We  do  not  even 
see  all  the  buds;  you  can  remove  every  one  you  can  find,  yet 
by  the  next  season  the  tree  will  have  brought  to  Jight  more 
dormant  buds  than  you  removed.  Because  of  this  you  can 
train  twigs  and  branches  to  grow  into  almost  any  direction 
you  wish.  It  is  not  a  question  of  pruning  as  little  as  possible; 
it  is  a  matter  of  selecting  the  one  bud  out  of  a  hundred  that  is 
to  live;  and  you  want  to  select  this  bud,  for  if  you  do  not, 
nature  will  for  you,  but  probably  not  in  the  way  that  is  best 
for  producing  fine  fruit.  Do  not  think  you  can  keep  all  the 
growth  a  tree  makes,  or  nearly  all.  Make  up  your  mind  that 
a  good  part  of  it  must  die,  from  one  cause  or  another.  It  is 
the  law  of  nature.  You  must  direct  the  growth  into  a  proper 
form. 

Certain  tendencies  of  trees  must  be  remembered  when  you 
cut  off  buds  or  branches.    First,  a  young  tree  is  likely  to  grow 
faster  than  an  old  one,   therefore  it  requires   more  heading 
back  than  an  older  one.    Any  tree  will  try  to  grow  first  from 
its  topmost  or  outermost  buds.    Always  cut  to  a  bud  or  branch , 

66 


PROPER  TRAINING  OF  TREES 

and  to  one  that  grows  in  the  direction  desired.  (Three-eighths 
or  a  quarter-inch  above  the  bud  is  the  proper  distance  to  cut.) 
The  tree  will  throw  its  sap  into  this  bud  or  branch  and  develop 
it  with  all  the  strength  formerly  given  to  both  it  and  the  part 
removed.  Direct  the  shaping  of  your  tree  by  following  this 
rule.  In  cutting  leaders  or  shoots,  remember  that  the  natural 
habit  will  be  to  grow  straight  on.  Thus,  if  you  cut  a  tall-grow- 
ing shoot  on  a  two-year  tree,  you  probably  will  find  another 
shoot  extending  straight  on  up  the  next  season,  with  only  a 
slight  offset  where  you  made  the  cut. 

By  keeping  the  center  open,  you  will  avoid  nearly  all  crossed 
limbs,  but  where  these  are  found,  one  of  them  always  should 
be  cut  out.  When  you  find  two  limbs  growing  parallel,  cut 
away  one.  You  can  have  a  "double-decked"  tree,  but  you 
cannot  succeed  with  a  three-  or  four-decked  one.  When  there 
are  more  than  two  branches  between  the  earth  and  the  sky 
at  any  one  place,  remove-  all  but  the  best  two.  Never  cut  a 
good  limb  that  is  in  the  right  place  in  order  to  get  under  it 
with  a  horse.  The  limb  is  worth  more  than  ten  times  what  the 
cultivation  would  be  worth.  Mulch  under  that  limb.  The 
tallest  apple  trees  should  not  be  more  than  twenty  feet  high. 
When  they  become  higher  than  this,  head  them  back  once  or 
twice  a  year,  and  keep  them  down  to  workable  size. 

Just  as  stronger,  bigger  trees  will  overshadow  and  dwarf 
the  leaner  ones  beside  them,  the  lusty  limbs  or  buds  will  stunt 
and  starve  out  the  smaller  ones  on  the  same  trees.  You  must 
keep  a  balance  between  the  various  parts,  or  the  biggest  ones 
will  get  still  bigger,  and  the  smaller  ones  smaller  yet.  Water 
sprouts  should  be  nipped  when  they  start,  unless  the  tree 
needs  new  limbs  where  they  grow  out. 

These  principles  will  enable  any  one  to  go  to  any  kind  of  a 
fruit  tree,  and,  after  a  little  study,  train  it  into  any  desired 
shape  as  it  grows.  To  make  the  tree  bear  fruit,  and  fruit  of 
the  finest  kind,  other  elements  and  habits  are  to  be  considered. 
But,  in  all  pruning,  remember  that  constant  watching  is  best. 
Go  over  your  trees  at  least  once  a  year,  twice  if  possible,  giving 
them  the  nips  they  need.  In  this  way  little  heavy  cutting  will 
be  required,  and  the  total  amount  of  work  will  be  lessened 
greatly.  Ten  minutes  to  a  tree  twice  a  year  will  accomplish 
much  more  than  two  hours  to  a  tree  every  two  or  three  years. 

Study  of  the  fruit  buds  will  open  the  eyes  of  many  growers, 
first  as  to  their  method  of  growth  and  life,  then  as  to  their 
location.  Fruit  buds  are  usually  thicker  and  fatter  than  leaf 
buds,  and  have  a  shorter  point.  You  can  learn  to  tell  them  apart 
by  studying  the  trees  in  the  fall  and  spring.  We  do  not  have 
space  here  to  explain  the  full  process  of  their  formation,  but 
we  can  say  that  fruit  buds  and  leaf  buds  are  transformable 
to  a  certain  extent.  If  the  growth  of  a  shoot  is  not  checked, 
all  of  its  buds  will  make  branches.  But  nature  asserts  itself; 
certain  buds  are  checked  by  stronger  ones,  even  after  they 
have  developed  into  little  branches,  and  these  dwarfed  buds 
or  branches,  since  they  cannot  make  new  branches  of  their 
own,  turn  to  the  other  work  of  a  tree — seed-producing. 

67 


HOW   TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

The  first  few  years  of  a  tree's  life  should  be  given  up  almost 
entirely  to  building  a  frame  on  which  to  bear  crops.  Disap- 
pointed branchlets  along  the  inside  limbs  may  produce  a  few 
fruits,  but  until  the  tree  is  rather  large  it  should  devote  its 
energies  to  growing.  After  the  tree  is  large  enough,  however, 
fruit-bearing  is  the  thing  for  it  to  do,  and  more  growth  should 
be  discouraged.  On  the  ideal  tree  there  should  be  just  enough 
new  growth  to  replace  annual  wear  and  tear.  Of  course  more 
will  grow,  and  this  will  have  to  be  cut  back  or  the  trees  will 
become  too  large,  meanwhile  neglecting  the  work  of  fruit- 
producing.  What  you  want  to  do  is  to  disappoint  the  great 
majority  of  buds,  and  thus  make  them  change  their  leaf  and 
branch  buds  to  fruit  buds. 

This  checking  of  the  growth  can  be  accomplished  by  tip- 
ping back  each  season's  growth  a  certain  amount,  depending 
on  the  kind  of  tree.  The  very  best  time  to  do  it  is  after  the 
fruit  has  set  tightly,  as  you  are  thinning.  Trees  stop  their 
season's  growth  much  earlier  than  is  ordinarily  supposed, 
and  if  you  cut  off  half  or  mo~e  of  the  length  of  the  shoots  some 
time  in  June  or  July,  you  throw  the  energies  of  the  tree  into 
the  forming  of  the  fruit.  As  your  tree  is  big  enough,  you  do 
not  need  more  wood,  so  the  various  processes  work  together. 
In  the  same  way,  all  summer  pruning  makes  for  fruit-bearing 
and  fruit-developing.  If  you  were  to  prune  large  trees  in  the 
winter,  the  sap,  when  it  came  in  the  spring,  immediately  would 
go  to  replacing  this  wood,  thus  giving  each  remaining  bud 
a  better  chance  of  becoming  a  branch,  its  first  desire,  and  lessen- 
ing the  number  and  vigor  of  those  buds  that  devote  th  imselves 
to  producing  fruit.  (Wounds  made  in  winter  and  subjected 
to  freezing  require  twice  as  long  to  heal  as  summer  wounds, 
and  many  never  heal  properly.)  We  recommend  that  pears 
and  apples,  especially,  be  tipped  back  in  June. 

Fruit  buds  usually  are  thicker  and  more  blunt  than  leaf 
buds.  In  winter  you  can  distinguish  them  easily  by  their 
appearance.  The  aim  should  be  to  have  as  many  fruit  buds 
scattered  all  over  the  trees  as  possible.  There  should  be  no 
long  stretches  of  bare  limbs.  To  make  fruit  spurs,  merely  pinch 
off  the  end  buds  of  little  branches,  instead  of  cutting  the  whole 
branches  off  close  to  the  limbs  from  which  they  grow.  If  you 
do  this,  and  afterward  avoid  breaking  the  spurs  thus  formed, 
you  will  have  fruit  all  over  the  tree,  and  these  spurs  never  will 
get  much  bigger  than  they  need  to  be  to  support  two  or  three 
fruits. 

This  brings  up  a  point  that  must  be  remembered.  Apples, 
pears,  cherries,  plums,  etc.,  bear  their  fruit  only  on  wood  that  is 
two  or  more  years  old.  Peaches  bear  only  on  one-year-old  wood, 
while  American  grapes  and  quinces  bear  on  wood  of  the  same 
season's  growth.  When  you  prune  always  remember  how  old 
the  fruit  spur  must  be  in  order  to  bear,  and  arrange  in  advance 
for  the  formation  of  more  and  more  fruit  spurs.  As  explained 
in  the  thinning  chapter,  two  or  three  years  are  required  to 
develop  most  fruit  buds  (excepting  peach  and  grape)  to  the 
point  where  they  blossom.  Unless  careful  thinning  and  growth- 

68 


PROPER  TRAINING  OF  TREES 

checking  are  done,  the  production  and  ripening  of  one  or  two 
fruits  on  a  spur  will  prevent  that  spur  from  working  ahead  to 
develop  fruit  buds  for  the  next  and  the  second  year  ahead.  This 
it  has  to  do  if  it  is  to  set  fruit  again  before  three  years. 

Judicious  tipping  greatly  helps  fruit  spurs  to  keep  on  form- 
ing new  fruit  buds,  and,  of  course,  thinning  the  fruit  aids  greatly. 
Still,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  see  that  each  year  there  are  large  num- 
bers of  fruit  spurs  which  do  not  bear  at  all.  Let  some  ripen 
the  crop  for  next  year,  others  the  crop  for  two  years  ahead, 
and  still  others  the  crop  for  the  third  year  to  come.  By  careful 
pruning  you  can  develop  on  your  trees  enough  fruit  spurs  to 
do  this.  But  it  takes  study  and  care — not  so  much  work  at 
any  one  time  as  a  few  minutes  now  and  a  few  again.  Watch 
your  trees  expanding  and  growing.  The  trees  will  develop  the 
fewest  possible  fruit  spurs  if  left  alone — you  want  them  to 
develop  the  greatest  possible  number. 

The  healing  of  wounds  must  be  considered  if  pruning  is 
to  be  productive  only  of  good.  In  order  to  find  how  to  make 
cuts  that  heal  the  quickest,  let  us  examine  into  the  method 
of  growing  a  bud  or  limb.  Close  to  the  heart  of  the  limb  or 
trunk  a  tiny  knot  will  form,  and  grow  out  through  the  wood 
to  the  bark.  After  this  the  projecting  knot  will  have  bark  of 
its  own.  For  our  purpose  it  is  correct  to  think  of  each  bud  or 
twig  or  limb  as  a  thing  in  itself,  just  as  though  you  bored  a  hole 
in  the  parent  stock  and  drove  a  wooden  plug  in.  When  this 
projecting  limb  (small  or  large)  is  cut  off,  the  part  within  the 
parent  wood  dies.  It  is  not  altogether  a  part  of  the  trunk  or 
the  old  limb.  If  the  cut  is  made  close  to  the  trunk  or  old  limb, 
however,  bark  from  it  will  grow  over  the  end  of  this  dead  wood 
inside,  sealing  it  up  entirely  and  keeping  out  water,  bacteria 
and  fungi  spores. 

Bacteria  act  on  an  exposed  dead  stub  of  a  limb  exactly  as 
they  do  on  a  piece  of  wood  in  the  soil,  disintegrating  it  and 
"rotting"  it,  thus  leaving  a  hollow  into  the  heart  of  the  tree. 
Part  of  the  dead  stub  merely  dissolves  in  water,  the  same  as 
salt  will.  After  the  bacteria  come  the  fungi,  which  tear  down 
(rot)  the  dead  stub  with  their  roots,  exactly  as  the  grass  and 
tree  roots  help  pulverize  and  tame  earth.  The  bark  on  the 
parent  stock  grows  over  a  wound  by  callousing — that  is,  by 
forming  a  swelled  ring  around  it,  gradually  closing  in  more  and 
more  until  the  surface  is  completely  covered  again. 

The  tree  can  do  this  healing  easily  if  the  wound  is  close  to 
the  surface  and  parallel  with  it.  It  cannot  do  it  if  there  is  a  stub ; 
therefore  cut  closely.  No  matter  if  the  surface  of  the  wound 
is  larger,  saw  right  through  the  thick  part  at  the  base,  and 
cut  closely.  Make  a  cut  underneath  the  larger  limbs,  to  prevent 
splitting  down, — such  a  split  is  inexcusable  on  a  fruit  tree.  Win- 
ter pruning  is  bad,  because  the  tender  bark  freezes  and  kills 
back  from  the  edge  of  the  wound,  making  healing  more  dim- 
cult.  Every  wound  larger  than  a  quarter-inch  should  be  covered 
with  some  substance  that  will  keep  water  out  and  protect 
the  raw  surface  from  the  air  (preventing  evaporation)  and 
kill  bacteria  and  spores  of  fungi.  Raw  linseed  oil  paint  is  very 

69 


HOW   TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FjRUIT 

good,  grafting  wax  is  better,  and  even  clay  helps.  Tar  and  some 
other  substances  injure  the  bark.  Do  not  neglect  this  painting 
over  of  the  wounds,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  oper- 
ations connected  with  pruning  limbs  thicker  than  an  inch. 
When  tipping  back,  cut  about  one-fourth  inch  above  a  bud 
or  branch.  This  stub  will  then  live  and  heal  over. 

Except  at  planting  time,  when  damaged  roots  should  come 
off,  with  a  slicing  cut  that  leaves  the  slant  under,  root  pruning 
is  to  be  avoided  in  the  East  and  North.  It  is  of  practicable 
benefit  only  when  the  soil  is  very  loose,  rich  and  warm,  and 
the  climate  almost  subtropical.  Along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
coast,  in  the  southern  states,  a  practice  of  cutting  all  roots 
back  to  six  inches,  or  even  shorter,  is  sometimes  seen,  but  there 
is  little  excuse  for  this.  Better  keep  all  the  perfect  roots  you 
can. 

We  do  not  say  much  here  about  the  tools  to  use  in  pruning, 
or  the  methods  of  cutting,  etc.  Those  things  can  be  decided 
by  every  grower.  Saws,  shears,  axes,  knives  and  other  tools 
of  all  kinds  are  at  his  command.  We  picture  some  in  this 
book.  If  wrong  cuts  are  made,  limbs  allowed  to  split  down, 
or  ragged  ends  left  projecting,  the  operator  is  not  a  good  fruit- 
grower, that  is  all,  and  no  amount  of  suggestion  will  keep  him 
from  failure.  Study  your  trees  and  train  them  as  you  would 
a  child — that's  the  way  to  succeed. 

SUMMARY 

Trees  produce  a  thousand  seeds  and  a  hundred  buds  to 
every  one  that  can  possibly  find  a  chance  to  mature.  Pruning 
is  a  question  of  selecting  this  one  out  of  a  thousand  that  will 
accomplish  best  the  result  we  want.  Proper  pruning  directs 
the  growth  to  where  you  want  it  by  disappointing  buds  that 
start  in  other  directions  and  with  other  aims.  It  is  foolish  to 
think  that  trees  will  naturally  grow  into  the  best  shape,  for 
nature's  plan  is  to  make  trees  thick  and  big  as  fast  as  possible, 
while  modern  orcharding  demands  trees  that  are  low  and  open, 
and  demands  large,  flawless  fruit  instead  of  little,  imperfect 
fruit. 

Adapt  your  pruning  to  the  habits  of  the  trees.  For  nine- 
tenths  of  all  trees  a  low  head  and  an  open  head  is  the  best  possible 
form. 

Go  over  trees  often.  Do  your  pruning  by  pinching  tips, 
rather  than  by  sawing  big  limbs  after  they  grow  in  the  wrong 
place.  Young  trees  must  be  pruned  right  when  they  are  planted 
(headed  from  twelve  to  twenty  inches  from  ground,  and  branches 
shortened)  and  must  be  gone  over  twice  a  season  for  a  few 
years.  Prune  bearing  trees  every  year.  They  will  not  need  much 
if  properly  cared  for  while  young. 

Summer  pruning  results  in  more  fruit  buds;  winter  pruning 
in  more  wood  growth.  Aim  to  make  young  trees  grow,  and 
older  ones  bear.  You  can  do  this  by  varying  the  tipping  back 
and  cutting  out. 

Wounds  made  in  winter  are  hard  to  heal.    All  large  wounds 

70 


QUALITY  CROPS  EVERY  YEAR 

should  be  painted.    Cuts  should  be  made  close  to  trunks  or 
limbs  and  parallel  with  them. 

Watch  trees  expanding  and  growing.  Live  with  them. 
Train  them  as  you  would  a  child.  It  is  tree  nature  to  develop 
the  fewest  possible  fruit  buds — you  want  them  to  develop  the 
greatest  possible  number  after  the  trees  are  big  enough.  The 
way  to  take  advantage  of  every  possible  inch  of  tree  growth  is 
to  direct  it  often  in  the  way  you  want  it  to  go — work  over  trees 
several  times  a  year 


Quality  Fruit,  Crops  Every  Year 

CULTIVATION,  pruning  and  spraying  will  cause  fruit 
trees  to  set  heavy  crops  regularly,  and,  even  if  neglected, 
trees  will  load  their  limbs  to  the  ground  every  three  or 
four  years.  Here  is  a  danger  that,  when  not  guarded  against, 
will  defeat  the  purpose  which  all  orchard  work  is  intended  to 
accomplish. 

We  care  for  fruit  trees  in  order  to  get  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  finest  grade  of  fruit.  Now,  trees  will  not  bear  every 
year  if  they  are  allowed  to  mature  all  the  fruit  they  set,  or  all 
that  does  not  drop  off  naturally;  nor  will  they  produce  much 
except  small,  inferior  fruit. 

An  apple  tree  will  start  twice  as  many  little  apples  as  it 
is  capable  of  "raising."  A  peach  tree  usually  sets  ten  times  the 
number  of  peaches  that  it  can  develop  and  mature  properly. 
Other  fruits  will  act  in  the  same  way.  Because  of  this  growers 
must  thin  their  fruit. 

We  may  compare  the  habits  of  trees  to  certain  facts  in  the  ani- 
mal kingdom.  If  a  flock  of  Wyandotte  hens  are  fed  right  and 
housed  properly,  and  if  their  eggs  are  taken  from  them  every 
day,  they  will  keep  on  laying,  summer  and  winter.  But  if  these 
same  hens  were  allowed  to  keep  their  eggs  they  soon  would 
want  to  hatch.  Each  hen  would  lay  a  nestful  of  eggs,  and  then 
would  sit  on  them  until  her  breast  was  nothing  but  skin  and 
bone.  Probably  she  would  raise,  each  season,  two  or  three  broods 
of  scraggy,  lousy,  nondescript  chickens,  which  minks  and  hawks 
could  catch  easily.  It  is  the  same  with  all  animals.  If  they 
breed  to  excess,  they  not  only  destroy  their  own  bodies,  but 
their  offspring  are  far  from  perfect. 

With  trees,  it  is  the  production  of  seeds  which  uses  up  vital- 
ity and  plant  food.  If  trees  are  allowed  to  develop  and  ripen 
only  a  limited  number  of  seeds,  they  will  build  large,  flawless, 
high-colored,  rich-flavored  fruit;  moreover,  they  will  produce 
such  crops  every  year.  If  they  ripen  too  many  seeds,  they  will 
exhaust  themselves  and  will  produce  only  a  small  quantity 
of  perfect  fruit. 

It  takes  a  tree  two  or  three  years  to  develop  an  apple,  pear, 
plum,  cherry,  or  other  fruit,  on  wood  old  enough  to  bear. 
(Grapes,  peaches  and  quinces  require  one  year.)  We  do  not 


HOW   TO    GROW  AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

see  this  growth  during  the  first  year  or  two,  as  it  is  going  on 
in  the  fruit  spur  and  the  bud.  We  must  understand  it,  how- 
ever, and  plan  for  it  when  we  want  the  biggest  crops.  (For 
an  explanation  of  the  difference  between  fruit  buds  and  leaf 
buds,  see  the  pruning  section.) 

A  fruit  spur  usually  has  several  fruit  buds,  all  of  which 
blossom,  and  most  of  which  set  fruit  and  make  a  cluster.  The 
rule  for  thinning  is  to  remove  fruits  until  they  are  no  closer 
than  four  to  six  inches,  doing  the  work  as  soon  as  they  are 
large  enough  to  be  found  easily — the  size  of  hickory  nuts — 
and  as  soon  as  the  fruit  has  set  tightly.  If  this  is  done,  only 
a  tenth  or  a  twentieth  of  the  buds  will  mature  fruit,  although 
nearly  all  are  likely  to  set  fruit  at  the  beginning  of  the  season. 

As  soon  as  the  baby  fruit  is  taken  off,  the  other  nine  (or  the 
other  nineteen)  buds  will  proceed  to  start  fruit  for  the  next 
year  or  the  second  year,  while  the  fruit  allowed  to  hang  on  is 
growing  and  ripening.  A  reserve  crop  always  will  be  coming 
on  if  proper  thinning  is  practiced  before  the  surplus  fruit  has 
had  a  chance  to  exhaust  the  vitality  of  the  buds,  and  this 
will  make  certain  the  setting  of  a  crop  of  fruit  on  that  tree  every 
year. 

Thinning  saves  the  tree,  and  by  reducing  the  amount  of 
energy  which  the  tree  puts  into  growing  its  crop,  actually 
saves  in  fertilizer.  It  has  been  demonstrated  frequently  that 
a  fruit  tree  on  which  thinning  has  been  done  correctly  needs 
only  half  as  much  potash  as  is  required  by  another  on  which 
the  fruit  has  not  been  thinned. 

Thinning  would  pay  even  though  it  should  reduce  the 
total  number  of  bushels  by  half,  but  it  does  no  such  thing. 
We  have  seen  trees  from  which  800,  1,200,  1,500  i, 800, and  up 
to  2,000  apples  by  actual  count,  each,  had  been  thinned.  Often 
fewer  were  left  on  than  were  taken  off.  But  it  was  found  at  the 
end  of  the  season  that  the  trees  had  put  enough  extra  size 
into  the  apples  remaining  to  make  up  for  the  difference  in  the 
number. 

When  a  tree  starts  to  develop  4,000  apples,  take  2,000  of 
them  off,  and  the  remaining  2,000  will  make  as  many  bushels 
as  the  original  4,000  on  that  tree  would  have  made.  If  apples 
are  thinned  to  six  inches  apart  (other  fruits  in  proportion), 
the  number  of  bushels  will  be  changed  but  little;  if  they  are 
thinned  to  three  inches,  practically  the  same  bulk  will  be  borne, 
there  being  more  apples,  smaller  in  size.  Thinning  within 
reasonable  limits  influences  the  size  and  quality  of  the  apples 
but  not  the  number  of  bushels. 

It  is  certain  also  that  when  fruit  is  thinned  those  left  will 
take  on  a  higher  color.  A  more  correct  way  of  describing  the 
process  is  that  the  color  comes  earlier  in  the  season.  All  fruits 
would  color  up  in  time,  but  winter  comes  on,  and  time  is  a 
thing  fruit  does  not  have.  Ripening  on  thinned  trees  is  more 
thorough  and  complete.  Few  apples  will  be  ripe  one  side  and 
green  the  other;  nearly  all  will  be  colored  naturally  and  hand- 
somely on  both  sides,  and  be  ripe  throughout. 
i  One  reason  why  thinning  is  so  effective  is  due  to  the  fact 

72 


QUALITY  CROPS  EVERY  YEAR 

that  trees  feed  from  both  the  roots  and  the  leaves,  as  no  one 
now  disputes.  At  the  stem  of  every  fruit  is  a  bunch  of  leaves. 
Sometimes  there  are  half  a  dozen,  sometimes  only  one,  but 
those  are  the  leaves  which  mainly  feed  the  fruit.  (A  smaller  amount 
of  nutriment  is  drawn  from  any  leaves  within  a  foot.)  Prove 
this  for  yourself  by  pulling  those  stem  leaves  off  several  twigs. 
You  will  find  that  without  them  the  fruit  will  stay  small  and 
green.  Think  then,  how,  when  there  is  only  one  apple  every 
six  inches,  each  will  have  a  dozen  or  more  leaves  feeding  it, 
and  consequently  will  develop  to  its  fullest  extent.  This  simple 
fact  explains  a  great  many  things,  and  if  we  bear  it  in  mind 
we  easily  can  better  the  quality  of  many  bushels  of  fruit  as 
we  work  about  the  trees. 

The  proportion  of  water  in  fruits  will  vary,  of  course. 
Apples  have  about  87  per  cent.  Now,  since  fruit  is  made  up 
so  largely  of  water,  it  costs  trees  very  little  to  develop  the 
flesh — so  little,  in  fact,  that  we  can  almost  overlook  the  plant- 
food  required.  Thus,  any  given  number  of  big  apples  does  not 
use  up  five  per  cent  more  plant-food  than  the  same  number 
of  small  apples.  All  this  extra  size  and  color  and  flavor  costs 
practically  nothing.  It  is  to  be  had  for  the  taking.  Even  the 
work  of  thinning  is  only  doing  in  June  labor  that  would  have 
to  be  done  anyhow  in  September  or  October.  The  other  two 
thousand  apples  would  have  to  be  picked  when  ripe,  and  it 
does  not  require  any  more  time  to  pick  big  apples  than  it  does 
to  pick  little  ones. 

All  wormy,  small  and  inferior  fruits  should  come  off  first. 
This  will  destroy  an  immense  number  of  insects  and  fungi 
spores,  just  at  the  stage  when  it  will  do  the  most  good — getting 
rid  of  the  next  generation  before  it  is  hatched.  Good  fruits 
should  come  off  next,  until  only  one  remains  of  the  cluster, 
and  until  the  fruits  are  far  enough  apart. 

Fruit  on  tips  of  long  whips  should  come  off,  too,  as  it  will 
not  develop  into  fancy  specimens.  If,  after  thinning  to  the 
regular  distance,  so  much  weight  remains  that  the  branches 
require  props,  thin  some  more.  Props  are  a  sign  of  poor  orchard- 
ing. Don't  be  afraid  of  taking  off  too  much.  Harden  your 
heart  and  snip  ahead. 

Thinning  the  fruit  on  young  trees  is  a  necessity.  Three- 
or  four-  or  five-year-old  trees  often  will  stunt  themselves  seri- 
ously by  maturing  all  the  fruit  they  set.  On  two-  and  three- 
year-old  apple  and  pear,  and  on  one-  and  two-year  trees  of  other 
kinds,  the  blossoms  should  come  off,  not  even  waiting  for  fruit 
to  set. 

It  costs  from  ten  to  fifty  cents  to  thin  a  twenty-year  old 
apple  tree.  Stone  fruits  can  be  thinned  by  pulling  the  fruits 
off,  while  apples  and  pears  will  have  to  be  cut  off  with  shears. 
But  mark  this  down  and  wear  it  on  your  sleeve:  don't  damage 
the  buds  from  which  you  take  fruit.  They  are  your  next  year's 
crop. 

By  thinning,  you  can  make  your  entire  crop  bring  20  to  300 
per  cent  more  than  it  would  without  thinning.  You  can  have 
$i.5o-bushel  apples,  instead  of  the  $o-cent  kind.  Thinning 

73 


HOW    TO    GROW  AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

would  pay  if  you  would  get  only  half  as  many  bushels,  because 
five  bushels  of  large,  perfect  apples  are  worth  more  than  ten 
bushels  of  small,  inferior  ones. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  grow  first-class  peaches  without 
thinning,  and  equally  difficult  to  get  good  plums.  With  grapes 
it  is  no  less  important,  but  they  should  be  thinned  by  winter 
pruning.  Cherries  and  pears  require  less  thinning  than  other 
fruits,  but  still  they  need  it  and  cannot  do  nearly  so  well  as 
they  should  unless  they  get  it. 

SUMMARY 

To  get  heavy  crops  of  flawless  fruit  every  year,  when  other 
conditions  have  been  met,  thinning  is  necessary. 

Fruit  trees  naturally  will  set  twice  as  many  fruits  as  they  can 
mature  perfectly.  Unless  removed,  these  will  devitalize  the 
trees,  exhaust  the  fruit  buds,  and  then  grow  into  imperfect, 
small  fruit. 

By  taking  off  half  an  ordinary  crop,  we  do  not  reduce  the 
number  of  bushels,  but  increase  the  size  of  each  remaining 
fruit. 

High  color,  rich  flavor  and  perfect  form  are  insured  by 
directing  the  whole  energy  of  the  tree  into  a  limited  number  of 
fruits. 

Only  a  half  or  a  third  of  the  fruit  buds  on  a  tree  should  bear 
each  year.  The  others  should  be  developing  for  the  next  two 
crops.  It  takes  most  fruits  two  or  three  years  to  develop. 

Never  let  trees  that  are  too  young  mature  many  fruits. 

Remember  that  the  big  profits  come  only  from  fine  fruit, 
and  that  to  get  it  you  must  thin  intelligently. 

Take  off  all  fruits  that  grow  closer  than  from  four  to  six 
inches.  Leave  only  the  finest  specimens — removing  damaged 
ones,  smaller  ones,  those  on  the  ends  of  long  whips,  etc.  Do 
it  soon  after  the  fruit  has  set  tightly,  when  it  is  about  as  large 
as  hickory  nuts. 


Living  Enemies  of  Trees 

ONE  of  the  fourteen  essentials  for  fruit-growing  mentioned 
at  the  beginning  of   this  book   was  absence  of  enemies. 
When  a  grower  has  mastered  the  methods  of  producing 
good  fruit,  and  has  trees  coming  on  nicely,  his  work  is  not  done, 
for  he  must  overcome  a  lot  of   bugs  and    diseases  which  will 
stunt  or  kill  his  trees  and  prevent  the  growth  or  ruin  the  quality 
of  his  fruit  if  they  are  left  alone. 

Most  fruit-growers  are  convinced  of  this.  The  following 
paragraph  is  not  for  them.  But  still  many  farmers  point  to 
the  fact  that  until  a  few  years  ago  no  spraying  or  other  fighting 
was  done,  and  say  it  will  not  pay  now.  These  men  have  an 
honest  idea  that  spraying  is  a  fad  which  soon  will  cease  to  be 

74 


LIVING     ENEMIES     OF     TREES 

popular.  Owners  of  old  trees  and  planters  of  new  orchards  are 
especially  likely  to  neglect  this  work,  giving  themselves  the  com- 
forting assurance  that  they,  anyway,  do  not  need  to  do  it. 

Such  a  course  causes  all  kinds  of  trouble.  Enemies  get  a 
start  and  are  harder  to  overcome  later,  when  the  grower  wakes 
up,  as  he  must  if  he  expects  from  his  trees  returns  worth  talking 
about.  Some  of  the  greatest  fruit  states  have  laws  compelling 
owners  to  spray  their  trees.  In  certain  sections  spraying  must 
be  done  or  the  authorities  will  spray  the  trees  and  charge  the 
cost  in  the  regular  tax  levy,  or  if  trees  are  diseased  will  even 
cut  them  down.  This  shows  how  spraying  is  regarded  in  some 
of  the  most  successful  fruit-growing  localities.  It  pays  to 
spray  every  season,  all  kinds  of  trees,  and  in  all  localities. 
If  you  have  not  done  it  before,  do  not  hesitate  now.  Acquire 
knowledge  of  the  enemies,  of  the  spraying  machines,  and  of 
the  materials  to  use,  and  when  the  proper  time  comes,  spray. 

Trees  are  living  things,  and  must  be  so  regarded.  If  you  are 
to  succeed  in  producing  profitable  crops,  you  must  approach 
orchard  problems  with  an  open  mind.  By  intelligent  spraying 
you  will  make  sure  of  having  healthy  trees,  stimulate  growth 
and  protect  foliage.  Proper  spraying  will  prevent  scab,  blotch, 
rust,  nearly  all  rotting,  damage  to  fruit  by  worms;  will  control 
scale  insects,  and  almost,  if  not  quite,  all  the  troubles  that  keep 
fruit  out  of  the  flawless  class.  It  will  insure  a  big  crop  of  full- 
sized,  clean  leaves.  Foliage  is  an  essential  physical  part  of  a 
tree.  To  secure  good  foliage,  you  must  protect  the  trunk,  limbs, 
twigs  and  buds  of  the  tree  from  injury.  Spraying  does  this,  and 
at  the  same  time  seems  to  help  growth,  especially  when  lime- 
sulphur  is  used.  It  is  certain  that  trees  which  are  sprayed  take 
on  a  brighter  green,  make  a  better  growth,  live  longer,  and 
produce  fruit  which  is  cleaner,  better  colored  and  better  ripened 
than  trees  which  are  not  sprayed.  (Probably  due  to  antiseptic 
action  of  spray  materials.)  If  done  right,  spraying  can  not 
possibly  harm  trees,  and  is  almost  sure  to  cause  them  to  live 
twenty  years  or  more  longer  than  they  would  if  they  had  not 
been  sprayed. 

The  first  essential  in  spraying  is  to  find  out  what  to  spray  for 
— what  you  want  to  kill,  and  how  to  go  about  it.  There  are  four 
classes  of  enemies  that  must  be  fought,  with  many  kinds  in  each 
class.  You  may  have  none,  one,  or  all  four  on  your  trees  now — 
if  none,  you  are  likely  to  get  some  next  month.  That  is  not 
cheering,  but,  if  you  heed  the  warning,  it  will  help  you  to  add 
several  dollars  to  the  value  of  the  fruit  you  can  harvest  from 
each  tree. 

There  are  insects  that  chew  at  trees  or  fruit,  like  codlin 
moth  larvae  (apple  worms)  and  curculio;  insects  that  suck 
at  trees,  like  San  Jos6  scale;  parasites  that  take  root  on  trees  or 
fruit,  like  bitter  rot,  blotch,  and  mildew ;  and  bacteria  which  attack 
leaves,  bark  or  wood,  like  fire  blight.  Each  has  to  be  fought  at 
the  right  time  and  with  different  materials,  but  the  treatments 
often  can  be  combined  so  that  several  enemies  may  be  overcome 
by  the  same  sprayings. 

To  give  the  most  and  clearest  information  in  the  least  space, 

75 


HOW   TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

we  have  adopted  the  plan  of  describing  briefly  the  enemies  of 
each  fruit  in  the  chapter  given  to  the  fruit,  so  they  may  be 
recognized,  and  of  telling  the  remedy  for  each  trouble  and  how 
to  make  and  use  it  in  the  spraying  directions  and  in  the  formulas 
immediately  following.  Here  we  give  general  points  that  must 
not  be  overlooked: 

Insects  that  chew  are  killed  by  poisons.  Arsenate  of  lead  is 
used  universally  to  control  them,  and  is  generally  conceded  to 
be  the  only  satisfactory  remedy. 

Insects  that  feed  by  inserting  their  beak  into  the  bark  and 
sucking  juice  cannot  eat  poisons  placed  on  the  surface,  so  they 
must  be  gone  after  with  a  contact  mixture  that  will  kill  them 
when  it  touches  their  bodies.  In  the  long  search  for  suitable 
materials  for  this  purpose,  experimenters  had  great  trouble  to 
get  mixtures  of  a  chemical  composition  that  would  kill  insects  and 
yet  not  destroy  or  injure  trees.  The  margin  is  narrow  and  the 
greatest  care  must  be  used  in  preparing  the  remedies,  both  to 
get  the  right  proportions  of  the  different  materials,  and  to  com- 
bine them  right.  A  little  change  in  mixing  lime-sulphur,  for 
instance,  may  make  all  the  difference  between  a  solution  that 
is  effective  and  one  that  is  worthless  or  dangerous. 

To  control  sucking  insects,  the  miscible  oils  may  be  used  to 
a  considerable  extent.  Their  chief  value  lies  in  their  ability  to 
clean  up  quickly  bad  infestations  of  scale  on  apple  and  pear 
trees.  (They  are  also  useful  on  shade  trees,  for  several  enemies.) 
But  nine-tenths  of  the  time,  lime-sulphur  solution  is  unques- 
tionably the  best  material  for  all  sucking  insects  on  all  fruit 
trees. 

Carefully  note  that  some  spraying  is  done  on  trees  when 
dormant  with  one  kind  of  lime-sulphur;  and  when  in  leaf,  with 
a  different  mixture,  or  at  a  different  strength.  The  scale  insects 
(or  any  sucking  insects)  are  very  hardy  and  difficult  to  kill. 
Strong  solutions  must  be  used  to  do  it,  and  these  solutions  would 
kill  foliage  and  tender  twigs  if  applied  during  the  growing 
period.  A  solution  that  will  not  damage  the  foliage  will  hold 
the  insects  in  check.  The  solutions  must  reach  every  fraction 
of  an  inch  of  surface  and  should  go  on  with  good  pressure. 
A  pressure  of  100  to  150  pounds  to  the  square  inch  will  insure 
results  that  cannot  be  obtained  with  lower  pressure,  and  will 
economize  material. 

Fungi  and  parasites  are  the  third  class  of  tree  enemies 
mentioned.  These  really  are  plants,  of  a  very  low  order,  which 
live  by  attaching  themselves  to  other  plants  and  drawing  their 
food  from  the  living  bark,  wood,  leaves  or  fruit.  Leaf  spots 
and  rusts,  the  rots,  etc.,  are  familiar  forms  of  fungi.  Toadstools 
and  common  mold  are  also  fungi,  of  a  different  kind,  growing 
only  on  dead  matter,  while  the  fungi  which  bother  trees  grow 
on  living  matter. 

Fungi  generally  increase  by  dividing  their  bodies  and  by  grow- 
ing a  fruiting  stalk,  which  finds  its  way  up  or  out  from  the  root, 
as  a  plant  stalk  grows  from  the  seed,  then  produces  a  spore 
or  spores.  The  spores  are  thrown  off  and  scattered  by  wind, 
birds,  etc.,  and  sometimes  by  fogs.  Most  fungi  live  inside  the 

76 


LIVING     ENEMIES      OF     TREES 

bark,  fruit  or  leaf  tissue.  To  protect  your  trees  and  fruit  from 
injury  by  fungus,  the  remedy  must  be  applied  at  the  right  time — 
which  is  just  before  the  spores  have  made  their  appearance. 
This  will  make  it  impossible  for  them  to  germinate  or  live  after 
they  lodge  on  bark,  foliage  or  fruit. 

If  the  spores  once  germinate  or  start  to  grow,  they  com- 
mence to  destroy  the  tissues  on  which  they  live.  Even  though 
you  should  kill  them  then,  you  could  not  replace  the  leaf  or 
bark  tissue  that  has  been  destroyed  already.  You  must  coat 
baby  fungi  with  a  mixture  that  will  kill  them,  and  the  work 
is  done,  for  mature  fungi  "plants"  will  not  live  long  if  not 
allowed  to  reproduce.  Prevent  the  injury — you  cannot  cure  it. 

While  there  are  almost  unnumbered  kinds  of  fungus,  the 
preventive  measures  are  simple.  Two  or  three  applications  of 
a  standard  fungicide  mixture  at  the  proper  time  and  in  a 
thorough  manner  are  all  that  is  required.  Lime-sulphur  solution 
at  the  dilute  strength,  combined  with  ar senate  of  lead,  or  self- 
boiled  lime-sulphur,  are  effective  for  early  sprayings  most  of  the 
time;  but  in  some  instances  Bordeaux  mixture  is  still  the  proper 
remedy.  They  should  be  used  in  the  ways  advised  in  spraying 
directions. 

For  diseases  of  trees,  or  attacks  of  bacteria,  examples  of 
which  are  fire  blight  of  pear  and  apple,  and  yellows  of  peach,  no 
material  is  much  of  a  remedy  and  spraying  is  of  little  use.  Trees 
do  not  have  a  circulation,  as  do  animal  bodies.  It  is  ab- 
solutely impossible  to  get  a  remedy  dissolved  into  the  sap  of 
trees  and  to  make  it  circulate  to  every  fiber.  The  only  thing 
to  do  is  to  cut  away  the  affected  limb  or  tree  several  inches 
below  any  sign  of  the  trouble.  Fire  blight  will  show  by  a  dark 
line  just  how  far  it  has  gone,  and  you  must  cut  below  this. 
Yellows,  however,  seems  to  be  in  the  whole  tree,  and  the  tree 
should  be  removed,  root  and  branch.  Watch  your  orchard,  and 
when  you  see  indications  of  this  class  of  enemies,  get  your  axe 
and  saw  quickly. 

In  doing  this  work,  have  a  strong  germicide  or  antiseptic 
into  which  you  can  dip  your  tools  after  cutting  off  each  tree 
or  limb.  If  you  do  not  do  this,  the  tools  will  carry  bacteria, 
and  thus  spread  the  trouble.  But  do  not  hesitate  to  cut.  The 
only  time  when  it  pays  to  try  to  "doctor  up"  an  affected  tree 
is  in  the  case  of  a  fine  old  landmark  or  lawn  tree.  Here  you  can 
wash  or  most  thoroughly  spray  the  whole  tree — trunk  and  twigs 
and  leaves — with  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  or  of  copper 
sulfate,  with  a  little  chance  of  checking  the  spread  of  the  disease 
so  that  excessive  pruning  will  not  be  needed. 

There  is  considerable  difference  between  the  different  fruits, 
and  varieties  in  each  fruit  vary,  as  to  their  ability  to  withstand 
insects  and  diseases,  and  also  as  to  their  ability  to  stand  strong 
spray  materials  without  burning.  One  kind  of  fruit,  or  one 
variety,  will  be  badly  attacked  by  some  trouble,  while  right 
beside  it  will  be  trees  of  a  different  fruit  or  of  the  same  fruit 
and  a  different  variety,  which  will  be  affected  very  little  or  not 
at  all.  Thus  peach  is  always  more  tender  than  apple,  and  it 
will  not  stand  nearly  as  strong  materials. 

77 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

As  an  instance  of  varietal  differences,  York  Imperial  apple 
leaves  are  always  badly  infected  by  cedar  rust  whenever  any 
spores  are  near,  while  the  leaves  of  Greening  and  Ben  Davis 
trees  are  little  troubled.  On  the  other  hand,  Ben  Davis  fruit 
will  be  seriously  infected,  while  both  the  Greening  and  York  Im- 
perial fruit  will  be  clean.  In  certain  sections  a  particular  enemy 
may  be  especially  bad,  and  almost  entirely  unknown  in  another 
section.  So  the  differences  go.  Plum  is  tougher  than  peach,  but 
not  nearly  so  tough  as  cherry,  nor  cherry  as  pear.  You  must 
adapt  your  spraying  to  the  kind  of  tree  to  be  sprayed. 

The  importance  of  knowing  the  class,  the  life  history  and 
the  habits  of  your  little  enemies  can  not  be  over-emphasized. 
Spraying  is  of  no  use  unless  the  proper  mixture  is  applied  at  the 
right  time,  in  the  right  strength,  and  in  the  right  way.  You 
seldom  can  kill  an  adult  bug — you  can  kill  only  the  young  at  a 
certain  stage  of  their  life,  and  so  prevent  the  coming  of  a  new 
generation.  The  life  of  insects  generally  is  short  and  they  eat 
little  when  matured.  Adult  enemies  will  not  do  much  harm,  and 
soon  will  disappear  if  they  are  not  allowed  to  produce  young. 

Often  there  are  only  two  to  four  days  during  which  the  spray- 
ing can  do  any  good.  All  the  trees  have  to  be  gone  over  then — 
every  leaf  and  twig  and  inch  of  bark.  Rainy  weather  may  cut 
even  this  short  time  down  to  one-half  or  one-third  the  time, 
and  you  must  have  men,  machines  and  materials  ready  to  do 
the  work  quickly.  A  great  many  of  the  enemies  hatch  just 
about  the  time  buds  are  opening  and  just  when  the  petals 
begin  to  fall  from  blossoms.  Those  are  spraying  times.  Some 
insects  hatch  two  or  more  broods  in  a  season;  so  to  destroy  them 
requires  several  sprayings  in  one  summer — always  at  a  certain 
time,  to  catch  the  young  at  the  right  period. 

Study  the  enemies.  Learn  to  know  them  well — to  know 
what  they  look  like,  their  habits  and  when  to  expect  them. 
When  you  know  these  things,  you  can  fight  them  successfully. 
Merely  to  "spray,"  without  knowing,  will  be  the  poorest  of 
guess-work,  with  little  chance  of  success.  Even  when  you  feel 
there  are  no  large  numbers  of  enemies  in  your  orchard,  spray 
for  insurance.  You  can  protect  absolutely  a  hundred  dollars' 
worth  of  fruit  with  two  dollars'  worth  of  spraying — and  it  pays. 

Thoroughness  is  the  key  to  success  in  spraying.  All  the  bark 
and  both  top  and  bottom  of  every  leaf  must  be  wet.  If  you  miss 
a  branch  in  the  top  or  center  of  the  trees  or  the  under  sides  of 
a  few  leaves,  enough  insects  may  be  left  to  cover  the  tree  again 
in  a  week.  It  is  something  like  the  case  of  the  woman  who 
worked  all  day  at  killing  flies  in  her  home.  When  night  came 
there  was  just  one  pair  left,  which,  in  the  kindness  of  her  heart, 
she  let  live.  But,  as  she  sorrowfully  said  afterward,  "Early 
next  morning  there  were  a  million." 

Put  the  spray  material  on  with  force.  At  least  100  pounds' 
pressure  should  be  used,  while  in  some  cases  150  or  200  pounds 
is  best.  Drive  it  into  the  cracks  and  crevices  in  leaves  and 
bark.  Get  nozzles  close  to  all  the  twigs  and  branches,  and  use 
hose  rods,  wagon  towers  and  high-pressure  pumps  that  will 
enable  you  to  do  the  work  right. 

78 


LIVING      ENEMIES     OF     TREES 

The  question  of  sprayers  is  not  hard  to  solve.  A  few  gas 
sprayers  have  been  made,  but  compressed-air  machines  are  the 
most  satisfactory  by  all  odds.  We  have  found  several  makes 
and  sizes  on  the  market  to  be  very  good.  Some  are  illustrated 
here.  A  man  usually  develops  a  liking  for  some  one  kind  after 
becoming  well  acquainted  with  all,  because  of  differences  in 
type  and  working.  The  principal  points  to  consider  in  buying 
are  these: 

An  outfit  should  be  of  a  size  suited  to  your  needs,  and  made 
so  it  will  work  satisfactorily  under  your  condition.  For  a  half- 
dozen  trees  a  small  hand-pump  in  a  bucket  will  do  the  work. 
A  knapsack  sprayer  is  a  better  form  of  this.  The  next  step  up 
is  a  sprayer  with  a  tank  and  pump,  mounted  on  a  frame  in  the 
form  of  a  wheelbarrow,  and  worked  by  either  one  or  two  men. 
Where  you  have  to  spray  more  than  fifty  trees,  it  will  not  pay 
to  go  as  slow  as  this  kind  of  machine  does  the  work. 

Even  for  a  dozen  trees  it  will  pay  to  have  a  barrel-pump, 
to  be  set  on  a  wagon  or  sled,  and  run  by  two  men.  Effective 
work  can  be  done  with  this,  and  many  orchards  containing  a 
couple  of  thousand  trees  depend  on  two  or  three  such  outfits, 
yet  it  is  poor  economy  to  use  this  type  of  sprayer  for  more  than 
a  hundred  and  fifty  ten-year-old  trees. 

Variations  of  this  form  of  sprayer  are  to  have  the  pump  and 
the  barrel  or  tank  mounted  on  a  frame  and  two  wheels  of  its 
own,  either  as  low  as  possible,  to  pass  over  stumps,  etc.,  or  as 
high  as  a  man's  head,  to  aid  in  getting  pressure.  The  high  type 
is  best  on  land  that  is  nearly  level,  but  the  low  type  is  necessary 
on  hillsides,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  upsetting.  Whether 
the  mounting  be  on  wheels,  sled  or  wagon,  the  tank  barrel 
or  other  shape,  and  made  of  wood  or  steel,  the  pumps  hori- 
zontal or  perpendicular,  the  handle  long  or  short,  red  or  green, 
the  air  pressure  is  got  by  working  the  lever  by  hand. 

Every  man  who  has  a  hundred  and  fifty  or  more  ten-year-old 
trees,  or  a  larger  number  of  younger  ones,  should  get  a  power 
sprayer.  The  advantage  of  securing  the  pressure  from  an 
engine  instead  of  from  man-power  are  many.  The  pressure  from 
an  engine  on  the  average  is  about  twice  as  high  and  more  regu- 
lar than  with  hand  pumps,  insuring  better  work;  the  engine 
does  not  get  tired;  and  two  or  three  nozzle-men  can  give  all 
their  attention  to  reaching  every  leaf  and  twig  with  the  liquid. 
With  a  power  outfit  you  can  get  over  the  whole  orchard  during 
the  limited  time  in  which  spraying  needs  to  be  done — you  will 
not  have  to  start  too  early  and  continue  too  late. 

There  are  many  types  of  power  sprayers,  some  with  engines 
and  pumps  on  skids,  to  be  mounted  on  a  sled  or  wagon  with  a 
tank,  but  the  best  are  those  on  low,  broad  wheels  of  their  own, 
with  a  cut-under  frame  that  permits  short  turning;  a  steel  tank 
holding  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  gallons,  hung  no  higher 
than  two  feet  from  the  ground,  and  the  engine  and  pump  at 
one  end  of  this,  preferably  in  front.  The  tank  should  contain 
a  geared  agitator.  The  pump  and  all  other  machinery  should 
be  taken  apart  easily  for  removing  clogging  materials  or  for 
repairs  and  cleaning.  A  tower  built  over  the  tank,  with  a 

79 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

platform  about  ten  feet  from  the  ground,  will  help  in  reaching 
the  high  limbs.  Light  draft  is  an  important  consideration, 
and  both  weight  and  wheels  influence  this. 

Pumps  and  engines  with  several  cylinders  are  better  than 
those  with  but  one  cylinder,  although  the  majority  of  power 
sprayers — good  ones  too — rely  on  one -cylinder  engines  and 
pumps.  Whatever  the  size,  from  knapsack  to  six-hundred-gal- 
lon, twenty-five-horse-power  sprayers,  insist  on  strong,  durable 
construction.  Pump  valves  should  be  of  brass,  or  better,  of 
bronze,  and  tanks  usually  should  be  of  steel.  Wood  is  good, 
but  too  heavy.  Other  passible  materials  will  be  corroded  by  the 
chemicals  in  a  season  or  two.  Bordeaux  is  harder  on  steel  than 
lime,  but  is  used  less. 

What  is  known  as  the  central  charging  system  has  a  pumping 
and  mixing  plant,  and  a  dozen  or  more  compression  tanks. 
These  tanks  are  nearly  filled  with  spray  mixture,  and,  after 
charging,  several  tanks  can  be  hauled  to  the  orchard,  where 
one  is  loaded  on  a  light  spraying  wagon,  hose  and  nozzles 
attached,  and  the  spraying  done  from  stored-up  pressure.  This 
system  saves  much  time  in  a  large  orchard.  The  spraying  crew 
keeps  right  at  work  all  the  time.  The  cost  of  installing  such  a 
plant  is  about  $2,500,  including  central  engine  and  pump,  and 
tanks. 

When  buying  a  sprayer  of  any  size,  get  the  catalogues  of  the 
makers  who  advertise  in  farm  and  fruit  magazines  and  books. 
There  is  a  wealth  of  education  in  these.  By  studying  the  situa- 
tion in  the  catalogues  and  by  writing  to  makers,  you  can  select 
intelligently  that  which  suits  you  best.  But  do  not  buy  a  pump 
that  is  too  small,  and  do  insist  on  getting  one  that  will  do  good 
work  at  the  start  and  for  ten  years  or  more.  Better  stick  to 
the  kinds  known  to  be  reliable. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  nozzles.  Your  sprayer 
will  be  fully  equipped  with  necessary  attachments  when  it 
comes  from  the  manufacturers,  and  experience  will  teach  the 
need  of  additional  nozzles,  hose,  extensions  that  may  be  used 
for  easiest  work.  Clogging  of  nozzles  is  a  great  trouble.  Some 
nozzles  deliver  the  spray  more  effectively  than  others — that 
is,  so  it  will  reach  farther  and  will  spread  better  over  leaves 
and  bark.  You  will  need  plenty  of  nozzles,  so  you  can  change 
quickly  for  a  different  mixture  or  on  account  of  accidents. 

The  directions  here  tell  pretty  plainly  what  mixture  to  use 
for  each  purpose,  but  you  must  become  familiar  with  handling 
the  chemicals  themselves  before  you  will  be  able  to  use  materials 
most  quickly,  cheaply  and  efficiently.  Beginners  always  will 
do  well  to  buy  and  use  reliable  commercial  sprays,  at  least 
until  they  better  understand  everything  about  killing  "bugs." 

Many  orchardists  who  have  large  numbers  of  trees  depend 
wholly  on  some  of  the  excellent  prepared  mixtures  supplied  by 
responsible  chemical  makers.  For  less  than  fifty  or  a  hundred 
trees,  it  is  often  cheaper  in  any  case  to  buy  ready-mixed  spray 
materials  than  to  mix  them  at  home.  The  great  advantage  of 
dependable  commercial  sprays  is  that  the  materials  are  pure, 
are  properly  combined,  and  that  you  are  given  specified  direc- 

80 


Note  the  tower  on  wagon  frame,  and  the  long  nozzle  rod  for  high  limbs. 


Types  of  nozzles  and  of  barrel  pump.    Have  plenty  of  nozzles. 


Six-year  orchard.  Small  picture  shows  compressor  for  putting  lid  on  bushel  apple  boxes. 


In  proper  storage-houses,  apples  keep  well  in  bulk  if  rushed  to  storage  when  picked. 

8l 


"Take  home"  baskets  should  be  given  more  attention.    Face  barrels  like  this, 


Low  trees  are  easy  to  pick  from.    Picking  baskets  should  have  turn-down  handles. 


Packing-shed  in  peach  orchard.    Processed  peaches  that  bring  good  prices. 


Use  diagonal  pack,  and  tissue  wrapping  to  deliver  apples  to  consumer  in  good  shape. 

82 


LIVING      ENEMIES     OF     TREES 

tions  for  applying  them  for  each  class  of  enemies.  You  do  not 
have  to  study  the  "bugs,"  the  spray,  and  the  time  to  spray. 

You  could  spray  for  each  class  of  enemy — go  over  the  trees 
once  for  each  kind — but  by  combining  the  different  materials 
properly,  you  can  make  two  or  three  or  four  sprayings  a  season 
do  all  the  work.  With  some  one  or  two  or  three  standard  mix- 
tures for  the  different  classes  of  enemies,  as  bases,  you  can  add 
poisons  or  other  materials  and  strengthen  or  weaken  them, 
and  in  this  way  meet  all  the  conditions. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  you  buy  or  make  the  standard 
lime-sulphur  mixture.  Properly  diluted,  this  will  be  your 
dormant  San  Jose  scale  spray;  diluted  still  more,  with  arsenate 
of  lead  added,  or  made  in  the  self-boiled  form  (generally 
best),  with  the  lead,  it  is  the  thing  for  spraying  buds  and  blos- 
soms— the  poison  killing  codlin  moth  and  curculio,  the  lime- 
sulphur  controlling  fungi  and  sucking  insects.  Combinations 
of  various  kinds  can  be  made  to  suit  the  occasions.  That  is 
where  study  and  experience  count. 

Elevated  tanks  for  both  water  and  mixture  are  great  savers 
of  labor  and  time.  With  them  you  can  quickly  fill  sprayer 
tanks  by  gravity  without  pumping  or  dipping.  Mixing  can  be 
done  both  by  gravity  and  by  pumps.  Run  two  streams  of 
different  materials  into  one  vessel  at  the  same  time,  with  force 
if  possible,  and  mixing  will  be  thorough.  Do  the  final  mixing 
in  spraying-tank.  Some  of  the  power  outfits  are  equipped  to 
mix  materials  with  their  pumps  or  with  the  agitator.  The 
engine  will  do  it  more  completely  and  more  quickly  than  it  can 
be  done  by  hand. 

Our  final  word  to  you  on  spraying  is  this:  keep  posted. 
Spraying  knowledge  has  reached  an  advanced  stage,  yet  much 
progress  is  made  every  year.  A  few  years  ago,  when  we  knew 
little  about  spraying,  we  had  to  take  various  roundabout 
courses  to  accomplish  results.  As  our  understanding  of  the 
subject  grows  more  complete,  we  take  many  shorts  cuts.  Many 
a  ten  dollars  can  be  cut  off  the  cost  of  thorough  spraying  by 
knowing  all  about  a  certain  habit  of  this  or  that  enemy,  and  by 
knowing  the  exact  effect  of  some  mixtures  on  the  pests.  What 
we  think  is  a  good  spray  this  year,  may  be  replaced  by  a  better 
one  next  year.  We  must  keep  informed. 

The  farm  and  fruit  papers  and  magazines,  new  fruit  books, 
state  and  national  experiment  stations  and  chemical  com- 
panies continually  are  supplying  new  and  valuable  information 
about  enemies  and  about  how  to  overcome  them.  Be  sure  to 
get  all  the  state  and  government  bulletins,  and  all  the  books 
that  you  can  find  or  can  afford  to  buy.  Read  them,  and  make 
notes  of  what  impresses  you  as  valuable  for  use  in  your  orchard. 
One  season  of  this  will  educate  you  and  enable  you  to  work  out 
a  plan  by  which  you  can  do  your  work  at  the  least  expense  and 
with  the  greatest  results.  During  the  winter  is  the  time  to 
plan  the  next  season's  spraying.  Go  to  your  trees  often.  Get 
a  magnifying  glass  and  learn  to  identify  the  various  scales  and 
insects.  When  you  know  the  enemies,  and  watch  the  trees,  all 
bad  infectations  can  be  prevented. 

83 


HOW   TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

INDEX  OF  MATERIALS  TO  USE  IN  CONTROL- 
LING INSECTS  AND  FUNGI.  AND  OF 
WHEN  TO  APPLY 

REMEDIES  ARE  NUMBERED  IN  THE  FORMULAS  PO! JjOWING 

The  principal  insects  and  fungous  diseases  seriously  affecuag 
each  fruit  are  the  following,  which  are  named  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  the  order  of  the  time  they  will  appear.  In  iso- 
ated  communities  there  may  be  heavy  infestations  of  some 
usually  unimportant  trouble,  but  it  will  come  under  one  of  the 
three  classes,  and  can  be  remedied  by  the  material  mentioned  as 
a  remedy  for  others  in  that  same  class.  If  spraying  for  the  enemies 
named  here  is  done  thoroughly,  little  attention  need  be  paid  to 
some  few  less  serious  ones,  because  they  will  be  disposed  of 
without  additional  sprayings  directed  solely  at  them. 

APPLE 

Sucking  Insects                   Chewing  Insects  Fungous  Diseases 

San  Jos6  Scale                     Codlin  Moth  Scab 

Oyster    Shell  and                 Curculio  Cedar  Rust 

Scruffy  Scales                  Borers  Leaf  Spots 

Plant  Lice  (Aphides)          Canker  Worms  Cloud  and  Blotch 

Teat  Caterpillars  Bitter  Rot 

San  Jose  Scale.  Concentrated  lime-sulphur  solution  or 
miscible  oil  during  the  dormant  period;  that  is,  from  two  or 
three  weeks  after  the  leaves  fall  till  the  beginning  of  growth 
in  spring.  Mild  days  during  fall,  winter  or  spring  should  be 
selected  for  spraying.  Lime-sulphur  is  almost  always  the  best 
treatment.  During  summer  the  use  of  self-boiled  lime-sulphur, 
or  of  diluted  lime-sulphur  solution  with  arsenate  of  lead,  will 
hold  scale  in  check. 

Other  Scales.  Lime-sulphur  solution  or  miscible  oils  early 
in  spring,  followed  by  soap  solution  in  May  and  in  August, 
when  scale  insects  hatch  and  move. 

Codlin  Moth.  First  brood  appears  first  about  blooming  time, 
second  brood  three  or  four  weeks  later.  Use  arsenate  of  lead 
after  blossom  petals  fall  and  while  calyx  is  open  (a  period  of 
about  ten  days);  again,  for  second  brcod,  three  weeks  after 
first  treatment. 

[NOTE. — The  codlin  moth  treatment  should  be  combined  with  the 
second  and  third  sprayings  for  scab.  Use  strong  lead  solution — two  to  two 
and  one-half  pounds  of  paste  to  fifty  gallons.] 

Curculio.  Appears  about  the  time  for  second  spraying 
for  codlin  moth  (third  for  scab)  and  is  controlled  by  it.  Arsenate 
of  lead  in  some  mixture  three  weeks  after  petals  fall. 

Plant  Lice,  or  Aphides.  Some  seasons  they  cause  great  injury 
to  foliage  and  fruit.  They  are  sucking  insects,  and  can  be  con- 
trolled by  weak  soap  solutions,  or  weak  solutions  of  miscible 
oil,  if  the  application  is  made  as  soon  as  they  appear.  They 
increase  with  wonderful  rapidity,  and  work  largely  on  the  under 
side  of  leaves,  making  the  leaves  curl  up.  Spraying  must  be 
done  early  or  it  will  be  impossible  to  kill  them.  Spraying  before 


SPRAYING    MATERIALS    AND    DATES 

buds  burst  with  lime-sulphur  solution  helps  to  keep  them  away. 

Canker  Worms.  There  are  two  distinct  species:  the  spring 
canker  worms  and  the  fall  canker  worms;  both  are  leaf-eating 
insects.  Use  arsenate  of  lead.  The  spring  worm  in  nearly  all 
cases  will  be  controlled  by  the  Codlin  Moth  sprayings.  The 
fall  worm  is  controlled  by  arsenate  of  lead  in  water,  applied 
when  insects  appear. 

Tent  Caterpillar.  The  apple-tree  tent  caterpillar  moths 
appear  usually  the  first  two  weeks  in  July,  in  northern  Atlantic 
states,  and  deposit  eggs.  These  eggs  hatch  in  spring,  usually 
about  the  last  of  April,  and  the  worms  begin  constructing  nests 
at  once.  Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  when  the  worms  appear. 
One  thorough  spraying  will  kill  them  all. 

Scab.  One  of  the  earliest  of  fungous  diseases  to  appear. 
Use  diluted  lime-sulphur  solution  combined  with  arsenate  of 
lead,  or  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  with  arsenate  of  lead.  Apply 
first  just  after  cluster  buds  open  and  before  bloom  opens;  second 
spraying,  about  ten  days  after  blossom  petals  fall;  third  spray- 
ing, three  weeks  after  second.  (The  arsenate  of  lead  in  the  second 
and  third  sprayings  controls  codlin  moth,  curculio,  etc., 
besides  adding  to  the  fungicidal  value  of  the  lime-sulphur,  and 
preventing  the  diluted  solution  from  burning  foliage.) 

Cedar  Rust.  Appears  about  the  same  time  as  scab,  and 
spraying  dates  are  about  the  same.  Its  injury  is  most  serious 
on  leaves  of  York  Imperial.  It  also  attacks  fruit  on  Ben  Davis 
and  other  varieties  considerably.  Cut  out  all  cedar  trees  in 
the  vicinity.  Lime-sulphur  and  bordeaux  are  only  partly  success- 
ful in  controlling  it.  The  only  material  that  has  ever  showed 
over  75  per  cent  efficiency  against  cedar  rust  is  Atomic  sulphur. 

Leaf  Spots.  These  include  several  different  kinds,  but,  for 
the  purpose  of  spraying,  may  be  considered  as  one.  They  ap- 
pear about  the  time  of  the  second  spraying  for  scab.  In  sections 
where  any  one  species  may  severely  attack  some  variety,  two 
or  three  additional  sprayings  may  be  required  for  control.  The 
first  two  sprayings  are  the  same  as  the  second  and  third  for 
scab,  and  the  others  should  follow  at  intervals  of  about  three 
weeks. 

Sooty  Fungus  (Apple  Cloud),  Fly  Speck  Fungus,  Blotch,  etc. 
These  troubles  are  remedied  by  the  sprayings  for  scab,  etc. 
Diluted  lime-sulphur  solution  to  which  is  added  arsenate  of 
lead,  or  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  with  arsenate  of  lead,  will  do 
the  work.  Bordeaux  is  seldom  needed,  and  never  should  be 
used  before  the  fruit  has  reached  the  size  of  hickory  nuts. 

Bitter  Rot.  Chiefly  a  disease  of  the  fruit,  but  attacks  branches 
of  trees  also.  Bordeaux  Mixture  is  the  most  effective  remedy 
for  this  trouble.  Lime-sulphur  will  show  only  about  50  to  60 
per  cent  efficiency  against  it.  Spray  first  about  July  i,  with 
Bordeaux  Mixture  with  arsenate  of  lead  added;  second,  repeat 
in  three  weeks;  third,  repeat  about  the  middle  of  August.  In 
wet  seasons  a  fourth  spraying  is  sometimes  needed.  The  arsen- 
ate of  lead  may  be  omitted  in  third  and  fourth  sprayings. 

[NOTE. — Do  not  use  Bordeaux  on  tender  fruit  and  leaves — it  will  surely 
russet  them;  use  lime-sulphur  iu  proper  form  instead.] 

85 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

Blight.  This  must  be  cut  out  quickly,  whenever  it  appears, 
and  tools  washed  after  every  few  cuts  with  a  strong  antiseptic. 

ASPARAGUS 

Insects  Fungous  Diseases 

Asparagus  Beetle  Rust 

Rose  Chafer 

Asparagus  Beetle  and  Rose  Chafer  are  both  chewing  insects, 
and  are  controlled  best  by  arsenite  of  zinc.  This  is  best  applied 
in  a  fungicide  (use  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  in  fifty 
gallons),  but  never  must  be  used  on  cutting  beds,  as  it  is  a 
deadly  poison.  If  necessary  to  combat  the  insects  on  cutting 
beds,  hellebore  may  be  used  if  given  a  week  on  the  plants  in 
which  to  lose  its  strength,  before  the  plants  are  sold. 

Rust.  Use  diluted  lime-sulphur  solution  or  self-boiled 
lime-sulphur;  make  either  only  three-fourths  as  strong  as  for 
spraying  apple. 

[NOTE. — Owing  to  the  spindly  nature  of  asparagus,  effective  spraying 
is  very  hard.  This  must  be  fully  realized  and  efforts  made  in  proportion, 
or  results  will  be  only  partially  successful.] 

CHERRY 

Sucking  Insects  Chewing  Insects  Fungous  Diseases 

San  Jos6  Scale  Tent  Caterpillar  Brown  Rot 

Plant  Lice  Canker  Worms  Leaf  Spot 

Curculio 

San  Jose  Scale.   Treat  exactly  the  same  as  you  do  on  apple. 

Plant  Lice.  Spray  when  they  appear  with  weak  solution  of 
soap  or  oil. 

Tent  Caterpillar.  Arsenate  of  lead  as  directed  for  same 
trouble  on  apple. 

Canker  Worm.   Arsenate  of  lead  when  worms  appear. 

Curculio.  Arsenate  of  lead  after  bloom  is  down,  and  repeat 
in  two  weeks. 

Brown  Rot.  Use  diluted  lime-sulphur  solution  with  arsenate 
of  lead,  or  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  with  arsenate  of  lead.  First 
spraying  must  be  while  leaves  are  unfolding.  A  second  and 
third  spraying  should  follow  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks. 

Leaf  Spot,  etc.,  will  be  covered  by  spraying  for  brown  rot. 

[NOTE. — Arsenate  of  lead  must  not  be  used  within  a  month  of  ripening 
time,  owing  to  danger  of  poisoning  those  who  eat  the  fruit.  Use  hellebore 
if  poisons  are  needed  later  than  this.] 

CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 

These  fruits  are  subject  to  attacks  from  a  few  of  the  same 
enemies  that  attack  fruit  trees,  and  the  remedies  are  the  same 
in  each  case,  both  in  material  and  time  to  apply.  Use  combi- 
nations of  lime-sulphur  in  proper  form,  with  arsenate  of  lead, 
or  soap  or  miscible  oil  solutions  in  their  places. 

86 


SPRAYING    MATERIALS    AND    DATES 

GRAPE 

Sucking  Insects  Chewing  Insects  Fungous  Diseases 

Leaf  Hopper  Blue  Beetle  Black  Rot 

Berry  Moth  Anthracnose 

Curculio  Mildews 

Roootworm 

Leaf  Hopper.  Must  be  sprayed  before  young  can  fly,  with 
solutions  of  soap  or  oil. 

Blue  Beetle,  Berry  Moth  Larva,  Rootworm,  and  Curculio 
Larva  are  chewing  insects,  and  are  controlled  by  arsenate  of 
lead.  First  spraying  for  them  should  be  before  blossoms 
come;  second  spraying  after  fruit  sets,  and  third  in  July.  Com- 
bine the  lead  with  a  fungicide  whenever  possible. 

Black  Rot.  Attacks  leaves  first,  then  berries.  Bordeaux 
Mixture  is  the  most  effective  remedy  in  most  cases.  Lime-sul- 
phur in  proper  form,  combined  with  arsenate  of  lead,  should  be 
used  oftener  than  it  has  been  in  the  past.  Spray  first  when 
buds  begin  to  open;  second,  just  after  new  shoots  appear,  before 
blossoms  open;  third  and  additional  spraying  should  take 
place  every  ten  days  or  two  weeks  until  five  or  six  applications 
have  been  made.  If  the  disease  shows  near  ripening  time,  use 
ammoniacal  copper  carbonate,  because  it  will  not  russet  the  fruit. 

Anthracnose.  Difficult  to  control.  Spraying  material  and 
dates  correspond  to  those  for  Black  Rot,  except  that  the  work 
should  be  done  even  more  thoroughly. 

Mildews.  Materials  and  dates  for  spraying  the  same  as 
for  Black  Rot.  Two  or  three  sprayings  will  control  mildews; 
first  one  before  blossoms  open;  second,  after  fruit  has  set;  and 
third,  ten  to  fourteen  days  later. 

PEAR 

The  sucking  insects,  the  chewing  insects  and  the  fungous 
diseases  which  attack  pear  are  practically  the  same  as  those 
that  attack  apple,  and  are  controlled  by  the  same  treatment. 
Pear,  therefore,  need  to  be  sprayed  while  dormant  with  con- 
centrated lime-sulphur  for  controlling  scales,  when  buds  open 
and  when  blossoms  open  with  combined  insecticide  and  fungi- 
cide, and  later,  sometimes,  with  Bordeaux  for  rot.  Pear  foliage 
is  tough,  and  will  stand  strong  sprays. 

PEACH 

Sucking  Insects  Chewing  Insects  Fungous  Diseases 

i    San  Jos6  Scale                    Curculio  Leaf  Curl 

I>canium  Seal-;  Scab 

Aphis  Brown  Rot 

San  Jose  Scale.  Kill  by  spraying  in  dormant  period  with 
concentrated  lime-sulphur  solution.  Hold  in  check  during 
summer  with  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  or  diluted  lime-sulphur 
solution  to  which  is  added  arsenate  of  lead. 

[NOTE. — Peach  foliage  is  more  tender  than  apple.  All  foliage  sprays  for 
peach  should  be  only  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  as  strong  as  for  the 
corresponding  trouble  on  apple.  This  is  very  important,  and  must  not  be 
overlooked.] 

8? 


HOW    TO    GROW    AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

Lecanium  Scale.  Use  miscible  oil  in  spring,  just  before 
buds  open.  Caution  is  necessary  in  the  use  of  oils  on  peach. 
They  will  burn  foliage  badly  if  the  least  bit  too  strong. 

Aphis.    Use  soap  solution  when  noticed. 

Curcullo.  Appears  about  the  time  blossom  shucks  are 
shedding.  Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  in  some  combination, 
and  again  in  four  or  five  weeks  if  there  seems  to  be  need  of  it. 

[NOTE. — Peach  foliage  is  tender,  and  the  arsenate  of  lead  must  be 
weaker  than  for  apple  spraying.  Using  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  paste 
to  fifty  gallons  of  other  mixture.] 

Leaf  Curl.  Is  controlled  by  dormant  lime-sulphur  spray,  ap- 
plied just  before  buds  begin  to  swell.  This  is  the  same  treat- 
ment given  San  Jose  Scale  in  spring. 

Scab.  Self-boiled  lime-sulphur  and  arsenate  of  lead,  applied 
about  two  weeks  after  the  blossom  shucks  go  down,  and  again 
two  weeks  after  that. 

Brown  Rot.  Controlled  by  the  treatment  given  for  scab. 
May  require  an  earlier  and  a  later  spraying  with  a  fungicide. 
Be  sure  to  cover  the  twigs  and  fruit  all  over,  especially  with 
the  later  sprayings. 

PLUM 

The  principal  enemies  of  plum  are  the  same  as  those  of  peach, 
and  must  be  treated  the  same  for  successful  control.  Plum 
foliage  is  more  tender  than  apple  foliage,  but  not  quite  so  tender 
as  peach,  and  the  benefit  of  slightly  stronger  spray  material 
than  peach  will  stand  can  be  utilized  if  needed. 

QUINCE 

Quince  enemies,  with  treatment  for  them,  are  exactly  the 
same  as  for  apple  or  cherry.  The  foliage  is  relatively  tough, 
and  the  enemies  are  easily  overcome  by  the  proper  measures. 
Quince  will  be  attacked  more  than  apple,  however,  if  not 
sprayed,  therefore  we  can  say  that  spraying  is  more  important 
with  quince  than  with  apple  or  pear. 

STRAWBERRY,  RASPBERRY,  TOMATO  AND  OTHER 
SMALL  FRUITS 

Many  of  the  enemies  that  attack  the  large  fruits  also  attack 
these.  Rusts  and  blights,  however,  are  especially  bad  on  some 
small-fruit  foliage  and  canes.  For  control  of  these  there  is 
nothing  better  than  self-boiled  lime-sulphur.  If  chewing  insects 
are  present,  as  they  nearly  always  are  to  some  extent,  the 
addition  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  the  fungicide  will  kill  them.  The 
time  of  application  of  the  fungicide  is  just  before  leaves  come 
out,  and  again  when  leaves  are  half-grown.  A  third  applica- 
tion can  be  made  when  canes  are  six  inches  high,  but  none  must 
ever  go  on  mature  canes  of  raspberry  and  blackberry,  particu- 
larly. The  time  to  apply  poison  for  insects  is  when  they  are 
first  noticed,  or  about  the  time  petals  fall,  and  again  in  two 
or  three  weeks.  On  tomatoes,  lime-sulphur  may  be  sprayed  on 

88 


FORMULAS    FOR    SPRAYING    MIXTURES 

the  fruit  from  the  time  it  has  set  until  six  weeks  later,  if  needed 
for  anthracnose. 

OUTSIDE  INFECTION 

Spray  brush,  trees  and  plants  of  all  kinds  near  your  fruit 
trees.  Only  by  doing  this  can  you  completely  protect  the  fruit 
and  trees  from  enemies.  Ornamentals,  windbreaks  and  hedges 
often  are  nurseries  for  large  crops  of  insects  and  fungi.  Make  it 
a  rule  to  remove  useless  trees  about  an  orchard,  and  spray  all 
that  remain  with  a  combined  fungicide  and  poison  a  couple 
of  times  each  season.  The  best  times  will  likely  be,  for  the  first 
spraying  while  dormant;  second,  when  leaves  are  half-grown. 
Cut  down  all  red  cedar  trees,  anyhow. 

FORMULAS 

Here  follow  directions  for  making  every  kind  of  spray 
material  that  will  be  needed.  The  process  of  making  them  re- 
quires some  equipment,  knowledge  and  skill.  Where  large 
amounts  are  to  be  used,  and  where  the  pure  materials  can  be 
bought  at  wholesale  prices,  it  is  undoubtedly  cheaper  to  mix 
the  chemicals  at  home  than  to  buy  prepared  mixtures. 

If  you  know  how  to  boil  or  otherwise  combine  the  chemicals 
so  they  shall  make  a  mixture  of  just  the  right  strength,  and  how 
to  dilute  properly  for  each  condition  or  enemy,  you  are  safe 
in  making  your  own  spraying  materials.  But  if  you  do  not 
know  of  these  things,  if  there  is  a  doubt  in  your  mind  about 
any  of  the  amounts,  or  of  the  processes  of  manufacture,  better 
by  far  buy  a  well-known  brand  of  commercial  spray  material. 
A  great  many  orchardists  who  know  how  to  mix  the  elements 
prefer  to  buy  their  sprays  ready-made  because  of  the  greater 
certainty  of  getting  pure  materials  and  correct,  uniform  manu- 
facture and  strength. 

The  "strength"  of  many  spraying  mixtures  and  solutions 
depends  so  often  more  on  the  mixing  process  than  on  the  amounts 
of  the  different  materials  used  that  skill  in  the  manufacturing 
process  may  mean  many  dollars  to  the  user.  The  way  the 
various  chemicals  combine,  the  bi-products  formed  and  changes 
made  by  their  combining,  the  temperatures  at  which  they  are 
mixed  and  tested,  all  have  much  influence  on  the  final  product. 
We  cannot  insist  too  strongly  on  good  spraying  mixtures. 

FUNGICIDES 

i.  Self-boiled  Lime -Sulphur.  Eight  pounds  of  fresh  lump 
lime  (quicklime),  eight  pounds  of  sulphur  (flour,  flowers,  or 
powder),  water  50  gallons. 

Put  the  lime  in  a  vessel  and  pour  on  enough  water  to  cover 
it.  Add  the  sulphur,  either  finely  sifted  or  made  into  a  thick 
paste  with  water,  as  soon  as  the  lime  begins  to  slake  and  boil. 
Different  limes  vary  in  heat-producing  power.  Good  stone 

89 


HOW    TO    GROW  AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

lime  gets  very  hot  at  once;  partly  slaked  or  slow  lime  will  not 
heat  up  so  quickly  nor  so  much. 

Ordinarily  the  mixture  should  boil  about  ten  minutes;  care 
must  be  taken  lest  the  boiling  goes  too  far.  During  this  time 
the  mixture  should  be  stirred  constantly.  At  the  end  of  the 
ten  minutes,  or  as  soon  as  all  the  lime  is  slaked,  add  cold  water 
to  the  mixture  and  stop  further  boiling.  If  the  mixture  is  al- 
lowed to  remain  hot  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  after  slaking  is 
completed,  the  sulphur  will  combine  with  the  lime  and  form 
sulphides  which  will  burn  foliage,  particularly  peach  leaves. 

This  solution  can  be  left  standing  for  a  year,  if  desired,  or 
is  ready  to  use  at  once.  To  the  mixture,  made  as  directed  here, 
add  enough  water  to  make  fifty  gallons;  then  strain,  so  it  will 
work  through  pumps  and  nozzles,  and  apply. 

Self-boiled  lime-sulphur  is  one  of  the  best  mixtures  we  have 
for  scab,  rust,  some  rots  and  many  similar  enemies.  It  is  very 
effective  as  a  summer  spray  to  hold  the  scales  in  check  until 
they  can  be  cleaned  up  with  the  stronger  fall  and  spring  spray. 
It  forms  one  of  the  best  bases  to  which  poison  can  be  added  for 
killing  chewing  insects. 

2.  Dilute  Lime-Sulphur  Solution.   |The  regular  concentrated 
lime-sulphur  (stock  solution)  mixture  (formula  7),  either  home- 
boiled  or  commercial,  can  be  diluted  in  proportions  of  one  and 
one-half  gallons  of  mixture  to  fifty  gallons  of  water,  and  to  this 
two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  added,  to  be  used  in  place  of  the 
self -boiled  lime-sulphur.  Some  authorities  recommend  a  hydrom- 
eter to   test   the   specific  gravity  of  the  lime-sulphur  mixture, 
but  this  test  is  unreliable  and  misleading  unless  all  conditions 
are  just  right.    This  solution  (for  foliage  spraying)  should  test 
1.1015  to  i.oi  specific  gravity.    Never  neglect  to  include  the  lead 
when  diluting  the    No.   7  solution  for  summer  work.     Lead  is 
needed  in  the  mixture  to  prevent  burning  foliage. 

3.  Dilute   Lime-Sulphur   Solution.     Commercial    or   home- 
boiled    concentrated    lime-sulphur    solution,     (7),    still    more 
dilute,  with  about  one  gallon  mixture  in  fifty  to  sixty  gallons 
of  water,  and  with  the  lead  added,  is  useful  on  the  tenderest 
kinds  of  foliage,  which  the  stronger  solutions  will  burn.    The 
proper  strength  of  this  mixture  (home-boiled)  will  test  1.005 
specific  gravity. 

[NOTE. — Hydrometer  tests  of  commercial  solutions  are  not  to  be  de- 
pended on.  Follow  directions  given  by  the  makers  to  get  proper  strength.] 

4.  Bordeaux  Mixture.    There  are   three   strengths  of   Bor- 
deaux Mixture,  called  standard  Bordeaux,  weak  Bordeaux  and 
strong  Bordeaux.    Standard  Bordeaux  contains  three  pounds 
of  copper-sulfate  (blue  vitriol  or  bluestone),  four  pounds  of 
fresh  stone  lime  (quicklime),  and  fifty  gallons  of  water.    Weak 
Bordeaux  Mixture  contains  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  copper- 
sulfate,  three  pounds  of  lime  and  fifty  gallons  of  water.    Strong 
Bordeaux  contains  five  pounds  copper-sulfate,  five  pounds  of 
lime  and  fifty  gallons  of  water. 

Put  the  copper-sulfate  into  a  burlap  bag;  to  dissolve  it,  hang 
this  overnight  just  beneath  the  surface  of  a  vessel  half  full  of 
water.  It  also  may  be  dissolved  in  boiling  water,  using  at  least 

90 


FORMULAS    FOR    SPRAYING    MIXTURES 

a  quart  of  water  to  the  pound  of  blucstone.  Slake  the  lime  in 
enough  water  to  prevent  it  from  burning.  When  you  have  a 
smooth  milk  of  lime,  add  enough  water  to  make  twenty-five 
gallons.  Do  the  same  with  the  few  gallons  of  copper-sulphur 
solution,  and  pour  the  diluted  solutions  together.  The  solu- 
tions never  must  be  mixed  with  concentrated,  although  diluting 
one  before  joining  them  will  avoid  the  trouble  caused,  if  care 
is  taken  to  keep  the  proportions  right. 

Air-slaked  lime  should  not  be  used  in  making  Bordeaux 
Mixture.  It  is  best  to  slake  lime  and  keep  it  in  the  form  of 
paste  or  putty.  In  this  condition  it  can  be  kept  indefinitely  if 
covered  with  an  inch  or  two  of  water.  Use  three  times  as  much 
of  this  lime  paste,  by  weight,  as  of  fresh  stone  lime.  A  good 
plan  is  to  cover  the  bottom  of  a  flat  trough  a  couple  of  inches 
deep  with  lime  and  work  this  into  a  putty.  You  can  calculate 
how  much  of  this  you  need  to  make  the  proper  proportions,  and 
then  take  a  brick  of  the  required  size  from  the  trough,  as  needed. 
The  lime  also  can  be  dissolved  in  water  and  kept — one  pound 
of  lime  to  a  gallon  of  water.  Add  water  to  replace  evaporation. 

The  copper-sulphate  can  be  dissolved  in  the  same  way — one 
pound  to  the  gallon — and  kept  until  spraying  time.  To  make 
the  spraying  mixture,  in  any  strength  desired,  simply  use  one 
gallon  of  each  of  these  solutions  instead  of  a  pound  of  the 
respective  materials.  But  always  dilute  before  putting  the 
stock  solutions  together.  After  it  is  made,  Bordeaux  will  not 
keep  for  any  length  of  time.  No  more  should  be  mixed  than 
will  be  used  each  day.  If  stock  solutions  are  prepared,  Bor- 
deaux can  be  mixed  on  short  notice.  With  good  lime  there  will 
be  no  danger  of  burning  the  foliage  at  the  strengths  given  here 
when  this  Bordeaux  is  used  on  the  different  kinds  of  trees  ac- 
cording to  directions. 

Should  there  be  any  doubt,  you  can  test  the  strength,  or 
rather  test  for  free  acid,  by  holding  a  clean,  bright  knife-blade 
in  the  Bordeaux  mixture  for  about  a  minute.  If  the  blade 
becomes  coated  with  copper,  more  lime  must  be  added.  Another 
test  is  to  pour  a  small  quantity  of  the  Bordeaux  into  a  vessel 
and  blow  your  breath  on  it.  If  it  is  made  properly  a  thin  white 
film  (of  calcium  carbonate)  will  form  on  the  surface.  If  the 
breath  will  not  produce  this,  add  more  lime. 

5.  Ammoniacal  Copper  Carbonate.  Five  ounces  of  copper 
carbonate,  three  pints  of  ammonia  which  tests  26°  Baume, 
fifty  gallons  of  water. 

Dilute  the  ammonia  with  five  or  six  quarts  of  water.  Make 
a  paste,  with  water,  of  the  copper  carbonate.  Pour  the  am- 
monia solution  over  the  paste,  using  just  enough  to  dissolve 
it.  Do  not  use  more  than  is  needed  for  this,  but,  if  any  carbonate 
remains  undissolved  after  standing  a  few  minutes,  add  a  little 
more  of  the  ammonia  solution.  This  mixture  may  be  kept  without 
spoiling.  For  the  working  solution  add  water  to  make  fifty 
gallons.  This  is  clear  blue  mixture  that  will  not  stain  ripe  fruit. 
It  should  eithej  be  sprayed  on  before  picking  or  the  fruit  dipped 
in  it  as  soon  as  picked,  then  rushed  into  storage.  It  can  be  used 
where  Bordeaux  will  russet  fruit. 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FR|UIT 


INSECTICIDES  FOR  CHEWING  INSECTS 

6.  Arsenate  of  Lead.   This  poison  can  be  bought  in  the  form 
of  a  stiff,  white  paste,  ready  to   use  by  diluting  one  to  three 
pounds  of  this  paste  with  fifty  gallons  of  water.     The  paste 
usually  comes  in  kegs  or  cans,  and  nearly  every  one  will  find  it 
the  best  form  to  buy.    Care  must  be  taken  that  this  paste  does 
not  dry  out.    It  will  not  do  this  if  the  surface  is  kept  covered 
with  an  inch  or  two  of  water. 

The  home-mixed  poison  is  made  as  follows,  but,  though 
it  is  possible  to  make  it  cost  a  little  less  than  the  commercial 
paste,  home  manufacture  is  seldom  advisable.  Four  ounces  of 
arsenate  of  soda,  eleven  ounces  of  acetate  of  lead  and  eighteen 
gallons  of  water  are  the  materials.  Dissolve  the  arsenate  of 
soda  in  two  quarts  of  water,  in  a  wooden  vessel.  Then  dissolve 
the  acetate  of  lead  in  four  quarts  of  water  in  another  wooden 
vessel,  and  when  this  process  is  finished  pour  the  two  solutions 
into  the  required  amount  of  water  in  the  spraying  tank. 

This  spray  will  be  milk-white.  It  is  the  most  efficient  remedy 
for  chewing  insects,  and  it  may  be  added  to  the  lime-sulphur, 
Bordeaux  or  other  spray.  In  doing  this,  if  you  have  dissolved 
the  foregoing  amounts  in  the  six  quarts  of  water,  add  them 
separately  to  fifteen  gallons  of  the  other  mixture — larger  and 
smaller  amounts  in  the  same  proportion;  or,  mix  two  pounds  of 
the  commercial  paste  in  fifty  gallons. 

INSECTICIDES  FOR  SUCKING  INSECTS 

7.  Standard  Lime-Sulphur  Mixture.    Lime-sulphur  mixtures 
are  made  and  sold  by  chemical  companies.    When  prepared  by 
reliable  people,  they  are  recommended,  and  will  give  the  very 
best  of  satisfaction.    Directions  for  diluting  and  using  each  will 
accompany  the  solution.     Generally  about  one  gallon  of  the 
concentrated  commercial  solution  to  eight  gallons  of  water  will 
be  what  is  required  for  a  dormant  spray.   As  noted  before,  there 
are   great    differences   in    the   value   of   different   lime-sulphur 
solutions  that  are  due  to  differences  in  process  of  manufacture, 
and  not  to  varying  amounts  of  lime  or  of  sulphur.   It  is  a  chemi- 
cal composition  of  the  final  product,  a  chemical  fusing  of  the 
elements,  that    makes    the    differences    more    than    anything 
else.    If  you  haven't   many  trees,  it  is    always    cheaper   and 
less   bother   to   buy   prepared    lime-sulphur,   and   many  times 
it   is   so  with   large   orchards   to   spray.    Unless  you   prepare 
your  own   solution  very  carefully,  you  will   not   have   nearly 
so  good  material  as  that  you  can  buy. 

For  the  home-boiled  solution,  use  fifteen  pounds  of  fresh 
stone  lime,  fifteen  pounds  of  sulphur  and  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
Slake  the  lime  in  an  iron  kettle  in  which  the  mixture  is  to  be 
boiled,  using  enough  water  to  cover  the  lime.  (Don't  use  copper 
kettle.)  Better  make  a  paste  of  the  sulphur  before  you  put  it 
in,  or  at  least  sift  it  thoroughly.  Stir  while  adding  the  sulphur, 
which  should  go  in  while  the  lime  is  slaking,  then  add  ten  or 

92 


FORMULAS    FOR    SPRAYING    MIXTURES 

fifteen  gallons  of  water  and  boil  this  mixture  for  about  an  hour, 
or  until  the  mixture  becomes  a  deep  orange-red  or  a  deep  green. 
It  may  take  on  either  of  these  colors;  lime  never  seems  to  act 
twice  alike  in  this  respect.  Add  enough  water  to  bring  the 
volume  of  the  mixture  up  to  fifty  gallons  and  it  is  ready  to  use. 
This  solution  should  test  about  1.04  specific  gravity. 

Both  the  commercial  and  the  home-made  mixture,  at  the 
strength  directed  here,  are  to  be  used  only  on  dormant  trees, 
and  must  not  be  used  on  foliage.  At  this  strength  it  will  burn 
nearly  all  the  leaves  off  if  it  is  applied  after  the  buds  open,  but 
it  is  no  stronger  than  needed  for  winter  work.  Properly  diluted 
and  with  arsenate  of  lead  added,  lime-sulphur  is  a  most  valuable 
summer  spray.  See  formulas.  Numbers  i,  2  and  3  (self-boiled 
lime-sulphur  and  diluted  lime-sulphur  solutions  must  be  added 
to  prevent  burning  foliage). 

8.  Kerosene  Emulsion.   Make  a  stock  solution  with  one-half 
pound  of  hard  soap,  one  gallon  of  hot  water  (soft)  and  two 
gallons  of  kerosene.    Chip  the  soap  fine  and  dissolve  it  in  hot 
water.    Take  the  vessel  away  from  the  stove  and  from  any  fire 
and  add  the  kerosene  while  the  water  is  still  boiling  hot.    Im- 
mediately churn  this  thoroughly,  or  better,  pump  it  violently 
back  into  the  vessel  until  it  forms  a  creamy  emulsion.    When 
only  a  small  quantity  of  the  spray  is  wanted,  sour  milk  can  be 
substituted  for  soap  and  water. 

For  various  purposes  you  must  have  various  strengths  of 
kerosene  emulsion.  To  dilute  for  an  eight  per  cent  solution,  use 
one  gallon  of  this  concentrated  mixture  in  seven  gallons  of  water; 
to  make  a  ten  per  cent  emulsion,  use  one  gallon  with  five  gallons 
of  water;  to  make  a  four  per  cent  emulsion,  use  one  gallon  with 
fifteen  gallons  of  water.  The  four  per  cent  emulsion  can  be 
used  without  damage  on  the  tenderest  foliage,  while  the  ten 
per  cent  emulsion  will  do  good  work  when  trees  are  dormant. 

9.  Soluble     or    Miscible    Oils.      Chemical    manufacturers 
prepare  brands  of  oil  so  treated  that  they  fuse  readily  with 
cold  water.    They  make  efficient  and  useful  sprays,  but  must 
be  used  with  caution.    When  they  are  too  strong,  they  cause 
serious  injury  to  plants  or  trees.    In  winter,  for  San  Jose  Scale, 
they  do  excellent  work;  and  in  summer,  for  various  enemies 
requiring  a  spray  of  this  character,  they  are  many  times  ad- 
visable.   It  is  best  to  get  information  about  the  strength  at 
which  to  spray  from  the  maker  of  the  oil  you  use,  but  for  the 
winter  spray  a  strength  of  one  part  oil  in  fifteen  parts  water 
almost  always  will  be  right. 

10.  Soap  Solutions.    These  make  a  valuable  spray  for  hold- 
ing in  check  San  Jose  and  other  scales  during  the  summer,  and 
for  various  other  sucking  insects.    One  pound  of  hard  soap  in 
four  gallons  of  water,  or  one  pound  of  whale  oil  soap  in  five  gal- 
lons of  water,  is  the  right  strength  for  dormant  trees.    In  any 
case,  dissolve  the  soap  in  about  one  gallon  of  hot,  soft  water,  then 
add  the  remainder  of  water  cold,  stirring  hard. 

11.  Tobacco.     Can   be    obtained    in   several    forms — as   a 
liquid,  a  powder,  or  in  stems,  to  be  used  according  to  conditons. 
The  essential  poison  of   tobacco  (sulphate  of   nicotine)  is  ex- 

93 


HOW   TO    GROW  AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

tracted  and  appears  on  the  market  in  several  forms.  "Black 
Leaf,"  "Nicofume,"  and  "Tobacine,"  can  be  bought  and  made 
into  sprays  for  orchard  insects,  such  as  woolly  aphis,  green  aphis, 
and  some  of  the  other  bugs  which  have  to  be  killed  by  contact. 
The  sulphate  of  nicotine  can  be  bought  pure  and  mixed  into 
spray  material,  also.  A  tobacco  decoction  can  be  made  by 
steeping  one  pound  of  tobacco  leaves  or  stems  in  two  gallons 
of  water  for  a  few  days;  or  by  boiling  a  quantity  of  tobacco 
about  one-half  hour  in  enough  water  to  cover  it,  then  dilute 
with  water  to  make  a  volume  of  two  gallons  for  each  pound  of 
tobacco  used. 

COMBINED  INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES 

12.  Bordeaux    Mixture  and  Arsenate  of  Lead.     Mix  two 

pounds  of  arscnate  of  lead  with  fifty  gallons  standard  Bordeaux 
Mixture.  First  dissolve  the  arsenate  as  directed  before.  The 
sticky  qualities  of  this  new  mixture  will  keep  the  Bordeaux 
on  the  tree  longer  than  it  would  remain  otherwise.  This  is 
a  very  good  spray  and  does  not  cost  much. 

13.  Lime-sulphur  and  Arsenate  of  Lead.    Mix  two  pounds 
of  arsenate  of  lead  with  fifty  gallons  of  self-boiled  lime-sulphur 
or  of  concentrated  lime-sulphur  solution  diluted,  one  and  a  half 
gallons  to  fifty  gallons  of  water  (arsenate  of  lead  always  must 
be  added  to  diluted  standard  lime-sulphur  solutions). 

RABBITS,  MICE  AND  BORERS 

Borers  attack  nearly  all  kinds  of  fruit  trees,  but  do  most 
damage  to  apple  and  peach  trees.  They  fairly  revel  in  locust 
and  many  other  forest  trees,  and  some  kinds  of  bushes  harbor 
them.  There  are  three  or  more  kinds.  One  has  a  flat,  black 
head;  another  a  round,  black  head.  These  two  work  in  apple 
trees.  They  are  supposed  to  live  on  the  inner  layer  of  bark  of 
the  trunk,  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  their  tunnels 
sometimes  extend  entirely  through  the  tree  and  for  more  than 
a  foot  up  and  down. 

Peach  borers  are  soft,  yellowish  worms  with  a  reddish  brown 
head.  They  do  not  usually  go  so  deep  into  the  wood  as  do  apple 
borers,  but  live  just  under  the  bark.  Either  kind  can  be  located 
by  the  sawdust  made,  and  in  peach,  etc.,  by  gum,  which 
comes  from  the  hole  where  borers  entered.  Peach  borers 
hatch  in  June  or  July  from  eggs  laid  on  the  trunks  of  trees. 
The  young  either  eat  their  way  in  where  they  were  hatched, 
or  drop  to  the  ground  and  enter  the  trunk  at  the  surface  of 
the  soil.  This  kind  stays  in  the  trunk  one  year  only,  but  the 
other  two  kinds  will  remain  in  from  one  to  three  years,  growing 
bigger  and  eating  larger  tunnels  all  the  time. 

Go  over  all  your  trees,  but  particularly  those  younger  than 
eight  years,  every  March  and  October.  You  can  locate  the 
borers  by  their  sawdust,  by  a  blackened  spot  in  the  bark,  or 
by  the  gum  coming  from  their  holes.  Cut  around  the  hole 
a  little  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  if  you  do  not  find  the  worms 

94 


FORMULAS    FOR    SPRAYING    MIXTURES 

right  away,  run  a  wire  up  or  down  the  hole  and  mash  them. 
There  will  be  from  one  to  six  in  each  infected  tree.  For  many 
trees,  equip  yourself  with  a  machine  oiler,  and  inject  carbon- 
bisulfide  solution  into  the  holes,  then  close  them  with  grafting- 
wax  or  soft  clay. 

To  prevent  borers  from  entering  any  kind  of  trees,  apply 
to  the  trunks,  about  the  middle  of  June,  the  Whale  Oil  Soap 
solution,  No.  18,  or  Lime-Sulfur  Solution,  No.  15.  Painting 
the  lower  eighteen  inches  of  trunks  with  pure  white  lead  and 
raw  linseed  oil  will  help,  too.  Apple  borers,  however,  some- 
times enter  three  or  four  feet  from  the  ground,  but  these  worms 
never  get  very  big.  Salt  and  ashes,  or  tobacco  dust,  in  a  layer 
a  couple  of  inches  deep  about  the  base  of  the  tree,  will  kill  the 
worms  that  drop  off  and  try  to  reach  the  trunk. 

Mice  girdle  trees  by  gnawing  the  bark  off  under  the  snow 
(and  sometimes  during  summer  when  grass  grows  or  lies 
close  to  the  trunk),  particularly  when  there  is  a  crust  that  stays 
on  well  into  late  winter.  To  prevent  this  damage,  be  sure  to 
draw  all  weeds  or  mulch  of  any  kind  back  at  least  a  foot  from 
the  tree  in  August  or  September,  and  never  allow  any  mulch 
or  grass  closer  than  six  inches  to  the  trunk.  The  earth  in  this 
open  space  should  be  heaped  from  three  inches  to  a  foot  high 
about  the  tree.  Mice  will  not  cross  this  open  space.  Tramp- 
ing the  snow  about  each  tree  before  the  mice  begin  working 
also  is  a  good  plan. 

Rabbits  girdle  trees  above  the  snow,  and  usually  do  it  late 
in  the  spring,  after  the  snow  has  been  on  the  ground  a  long 
time.  Painting  trunks  with  pure  white  lead  and  raw  linseed 
oil,  as  for  borers,  helps  to  prevent  both  mice  and  rabbits  from 
chewing  the  bark.  Perfect  protection  is  given  by  wooden 
veneers  on  the  market,  made  especially  for  wrapping  trunks 
of  small  trees.  They  cost  about  75  cents  a  hundred.  Strips 
of  tar  paper,  of  wire  screen  or  of  wire  cloth,  cut  five  inches  wide 
and  two  feet  long,  then  wrapped  around  a  broom  handle,  so  as 
to  make  long,  open-sided  tubes  that  will  spring  around  the  trunk 
are  cheaper  and  very  practical  for  this  purpose. 

The  Lime-Sulfur  solution  many  times  will  turn  rabbits 
away,  and  a  mixture  of  blood  and  ashes  will  do  this  nearly 
every  time.  By  all  means  hunt  down  the  rabbits.  The  boys 
can  set  traps  that  will  clean  them  out  pretty  well  in  one  winter, 
and  you  can  form  the  habit  of  having  a  gun  with  you  as  you 
work  among  your  trees.  You  will  be  able  to  send  many  a 
bunny  to  the  Happy  Hunting  Grounds  with  it,  and  besides, 
you  will  have  lots  of  chances  to  shoot  hawks,  foxes  and  other 
pests.  Bridge-graft  trees  that  have  been  girdled  or  partly 
girdled.  This  operation  can  be  done  for  twenty-five  cents  a 
tree,  and  any  good  orchard  tree  in  normal  condition  is  worth 
from  $5  to  $100.  Cut  whips  of  last  year's  growth  and  bevel 
the  ends  so  they  will  lie  flat  against  the  bark  when  the  middle 
is  bowed  out  a  little.  Then  slit  the  bark  above  and  below  the 
wound,  as  is  done  in  budding,  and  slip  these  beveled  ends 
in  against  the  inner  layer  of  bark.  Cover  this  joint,  and 
whole  wound  if  possible,  with  grafting-wax.  That  is  all  there 

95 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

is  to  it.    The  tree  will  live  and  the  bark  will  grow  over  the 
wounds. 

SUMMARY 

Spraying  is  a  vital  necessity  if  money  is  to  be  made  from 
fruit.  It  doesn't  pay  to  doubt  this,  and  it  doesn't  pay  to  miss 
one  season,  even  if  enemies  are  not  visible. 

Spraying  has  an  invigorating  effect  on  trees,  besides  con- 
trolling enemies. 

Knowledge  of  what  to  spray  for,  what  mixtures  to  use  and 
when  to  apply  is  a  necessity  before  spraying  can  be  made  effec- 
tive. 

There  are  three  classes  of  enemies  spraying  will  control — 
chewing  insects,  sucking  insects  and  fungi.  Each  class  requires 
a  different  remedy,  but  the  remedies  can  be  combined  most  of 
the  time. 

Spraying  during  the  dormant  period  is  distinctly  different 
from  spraying  on  foliage.  Materials  several  times  as  strong 
can  be  used  and  are  needed  to  control  the  scales. 

On  account  of  life  habits  of  enemies,  often  only  two  to  four 
days  are  available  for  any  one  spraying  and  the  work  must  be 
done  then. 

Put  the  material  on  with  force  and  cover  every  inch  of  bark 
and  leaf. 

Get  a  sprayer  that  is  big  enough,  that  will  give  100  to  250 
pounds  air-pressure,  that  is  adapted  to  your  land  and  trees,  and 
that  is  durable.  Get  a  power  outfit,  if  possible,  for  it  does 
better  work  than  a  hand  pump  can. 

The  spraying  program  ordinarily  resolves  itself  into  two, 
three  or  four  applications — one  while  trees  are  dormant,  with 
lime-sulphur  solution,  and  the  others  on  blossoms  and  fruit 
with  self -boiled  lime-sulphur,  or  diluted  lime-sulphur,  with 
arsenate  of  lead  added,  or  maybe  with  bordeaux  and  lead. 
All  applications  must  be  guided  by  careful  study. 

The  differences  in  spraying  mixtures  is  one  of  chemical 
combining  of  the  materials,  as  well  as  of  differences  in  quantity 
of  each  material  used.  Be  sure  you  get  the  right  mixture. 

Borers  will  attack  fruit  trees  in  spite  of  all  we  can  do  and 
will  kill  many  trees  if  left  alone. 

Trees  must  be  gone  over  once  each  year,  and  should  be  gone 
over  each  April  and  August. 

Spraying  and  painting  with  lime-sulphur  sediment  will  help 
in  keeping  down  the  numbers  of  borers. 

Keep  trash  and  mulches  at  least  six  inches  away  from  tree 
trunks,  and  tramp  snow  about  trees  in  late  winter,  to  prevent 
mice  damage. 

Always  bridge-graft  trees  that  have  been  girdled. 


9<J 


Miscellaneous 

ORCHARD  RECORDS 

When  you  set  out  an  orchard  always  make  a  chart  of  the 
arrangement,  giving  a  place  and  a  number  to  each  tree,  then 
record  the  numbers,  variety  and  other  data  in  a  book.  If  you 
fail  to  do  this,  you  will  know  how  good  a  forgetter  you  are  when 
you  try  to  remember  where  you  planted  each  kind.  The  in- 
formation will  be  useful  in  a  dozen  ways.  Take  our  word  that 
it  is  worth  while,  and  keep  the  records  accurately  and  completely. 

To  label  each  tree  helps  this  plan  and  has  other  advantages. 
One  of  the  best  ways  is  to  cut  heavy  zinc  into  strips  about  ten 
inches  long,  two  inches  wide  at  one  end  and  coming  to  a  point 
at  the  other.  Put  these  in  vinegar  for  a  few  hours  to  corrode 
them;  when  dry  you  can  write  on  them  with  ink  or  with  an 
ordinary  indelible  lead  pencil  and  the  marks  will  stay  on  for 
twenty  years.  Twist  the  little  end  of  the  tag  loosely  about  a 
limb,  and  let  it  hang  down.  Put  on  this  tag  the  variety  name, 
the  number,  possibly  the  date  planted,  the  number  of  bushels 
harvested  each  year,  date  of  blooming,  and  other  useful  data. 
As  the  limb  grows,  loosen  the  loop  a  little,  or  remove  the  tag 
to  a  smaller  limb.  This  helps  greatly  in  the  successful  handling 
of  an  orchard. 

CLIMBING  CUTWORMS 

Those  little  pests  live  in  the  soil  and  crawl  up  young  trees 
at  night.  They  destroy  the  tender  buds.  The  remedy  is  to 
put  a  wrapping  of  cotton  around  the  trunk  of  the  tree  a  foot 
or  so  from  the  ground;  or  better,  build  a  "fence"  of  tarred 
paper  about  the  base  of  the  tree.  This  should  be  about  six 
irches  high,  and  should  go  an  inch  into  the  ground.  Poisoned 
bran  mush  at  the  base  of  trees  is  effective  also. 

GRAFTING 

Trees  which  have  proved  untrue  to  name  or  of  worthless 
varieties  should  be  top-worked  with  desirable  kinds.  This  is 
done  by  grafting  eighteen  or  twenty  scions  on  suitable  limbs, 
just  as  the  bark  first  loosens  in  the  spring.  Be  sure  that  the 
cuttings  you  use  come  from  the  best  trees  of  the  best  kinds. 
Wild  trees  and  seedlings  about  farms  can  be  grafted  likewise, 
as  can  those  good  kinds  which  require  cross-pollination.  Use 
good  grafting  wax,  cut  scions  carefully,  and  put  them  in  right, 
and  grafts  will  grow. 

Bridge-grafting  is  explained  in  the  talk  on  mice  damage. 
It  has  other  uses,  as  with  a  tree  which  has  been  skinned  badly 
from  any  cause,  a  bad  split  that  cannot  be  repaired  by  bolting, 
etc.  Try  to  get  at  least  five  or  six  of  the  bridges  to  growing. 
Cover  with  grafting-wax  the  places  of  insertion  and  at  least 
the  raw  edges  of  bark.  It  is  well  to  cover  the  whole  surface 
bared  if  you  can  get  enough  wax. 

97 


HOW    TO    GROW  AND    MARKET    FRUIT 


SPLIT  FORKS 

Should  a  tree  split,  draw  the  sections  together  with  a  rope 
and  pulleys,  bore  a  hole  through  them  and  bolt  them  together. 
This  can  be  done  by  using  one  long  bolt,  or  by  using  two  short 
ones  with  rings  for  heads,  and  connecting  them  with  a  wire 
or  chain.  Some  growers  do  not  bore  holes,  but  use  screws 
with  ring  heads.  We  have  seen  trees  that  had  a  complete 
system  of  such  supports,  all  the  wires  (from  each  limb)  coming 
together  in  the  center  of  the  head,  on  a  strong  ring.  Do  not 
put  a  wire  or  chain  around  the  limbs.  It  is  possible  to  connect 
two  cross- growing  limbs,  or  one  leading  toward  an  opposite 
fork,  so  they  will  unite  and  form  a  natural  brace. 

WINDBREAKS  FOR  ORCHARDS 

A  windbreak  will  protect  fruit  trees  from  cold.  In  case  of 
late  spring  frost  this  is  done  by  deflecting  up  over  the  trees 
the  downward  flowing  frosty  air.  The  windbreak  must  not 
be  thick  enough  to  produce  a  dead  air  space  in  its  lee,  as  such 
a  condition  will  cause  frosted  blossoms  every  time.  The  break 
must  let  some  of  the  air  through  to  keep  up  the  motion  through 
the  orchard. 

With  the  more  tender  trees  like  peaches  and  plums,  a  wind- 
break is  of  the  greatest  value,  protecting  the  tender  twigs  and 
buds  from  the  most  penetrating  cold  in  times  of  high  wind  in 
midwinter.  In  the  summer  and  fall,  half  the  fruit  on  heavily 
loaded  trees  sometimes  will  be  blown  off  if  not  protected  by 
a  windbreak;  but  if  protected  the  normal  number  of  drops 
will  be  diminished  by  at  least  half,  while  the  damage  from 
storms  will  be  largely  eliminated. 

Spraying  and  picking  in  unprotected  orchards  often  have 
to  be  stopped  on  windy  days.  Here  a  windbreak  would  enable 
the  operators  to  put  the  liquid  where  it  is  needed  or  enable 
pickers  to  go  ahead  with  their  work.  A  windbreak  will  retain 
snow  and  leaves  and  so  prevent  deep  frosting  and  excessive 
soil  evaporation;  will  lessen  breaking  of  trees  and  twigs  under 
loads  of  ice;  will  enable  trees  to  grow  straighter;  will  protect 
blossoms  from  severe  winds  and  so  help  pollination;  and  in 
some  cases  will  hasten  the  ripening  of  fruit. 

Windbreaks  will  harbor  insects  to  a  certain  extent,  but  not 
if  they  are  sprayed.  If  they  are  not  planted  far  enough  from 
the  outside  rows  of  fruit  trees  they  will  rob  them  of  plant  food. 
Plant  the  break  at  least  forty  feet  from  the  nearest  fruit  trees. 
Some  advise  that  eighty  or  one  hundred  feet  be  left  here,  and 
claim  that  the  space  will  be  well  used. 

Norway  spruce,  Scotch  and  Austrian  pines  and  the  arbor- 
vitae  make  the  best  evergreen  windbreak.  California  privet, 
Lombardy  poplars  and  maples  made  good  deciduous  windbreaks. 
In  some  places  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  break  thick  from  the 
ground  up;  in  others  it  should  be  open  at  the  bottom,  and 
thicker  on  a  level  with  the  foliage  of  the  fruit  trees. 


The  universal  method  of  packing  peaches  for  shipment,  in  the  East, 


Ray  peaches  thrive  under  many  different  conditions. 


Grapes  may  be  staked  the  first  three  years.    After  that  trellises  are  better. 


Kind  of  cherries  that  bring  profits.    Picture  slightly  reduced. 
99 


A  home  bed  of  strawberries  adds  wonderfully  to  home's  attractions  in  June. 


Glimpse  of  a  commercial  vineyard  of  300  acres.    Note  cultivation,  training,  etc. 


How  to  train  grape-vines,  at    a  home.    Note  bagging  in  upper  right-hand  corner. 


A  fine  quince  tree.   Note  method  of  training,  perfect  foliage  and  crop  of  fruit. 

100 


MISCELLANEOUS 


The  lay  of  your  land  will  tell  you  where  to  plant  the  break, 
and  will  determine  its  value.  There  are  few  orchards  in  which 
a  break  will  not  benefit  the  fruit  and  trees,  besides  enhancing 
the  beauty  of  the  place. 

WHEN  TREES  WILL  NOT  BEAR 

Here  and  there  throughout  the  country  are  many  fruit 
trees  of  bearing  age  which  never  have  produced  a  single  fruit, 
or  at  most  a  few  imperfect  ones.  Everything  that  has  been 
said  about  the  well-being  of  fruit  trees  is  an  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion, "How  can  we  make  these  trees  bear?" 

First  look  to  the  condition  of  the  soil.  It  may  lack  moisture, 
or  may  be  too  wet.  There  may  be  rock  or  hard-pan  close  to 
the  surface,  preventing  root  expansion.  The  soil  may  lack 
some  or  all  the  plant-food  elements,  may  lack  dead  vegetable 
matter,  friendly  bacteria,  or  require  a  general  loosening  up 
to  a  depth  of  four  or  five  feet. 

Explode  a  charge  of  dynamite  under  each  tree,  and  three 
or  four  others  a  few  feet  away.  Mulch  the  surface  with  a  thick 
covering  of  vegetable  matter,  or  by  keeping  a  couple  inches 
of  dust  under  the  tree.  Feed  with  commercial  fertilizer. 

The  tree  may  be  growing  too  fast.    In  that  case  reduce  the 
amount  of  nitrogen.    It  may  be  necessary  also  to  reduce  the 
amount  of  moisture,  but  this  should  be  avoided,  unless  there 
is  a  decided  excess  of  water,  which  should  be  drained  away. 

Your  trees  may  lack,,  cross-pollination.  This  is  a  frequent 
cause  of  non-bearing.  The  remedy  is  to  plant  other  kinds 
near-by  (see  planting  section),  or  top-  work  bearing  trees  with 
one  or  two  branches  of  other  kinds,  and  the  blossoms  on  these 
will  fertilize  those  on  the  rest  of  the  tree.  See  that  trees  harbor 
no  scale  nor  other  enemies. 

Girdling  sometimes  is  resorted  to  with  success,  as  is  also 
notching  deeply  below  fruit  spurs.  The  method  of  girdling 
is  to  press  a  heavy  knife  into  the  bark,  making  in  this  way  a 
cut  entirely  around  the  tree.  This  will  not  kill  the  tree.  Other 
practices  are  to  take  an  eighteen-inch  strip  of  bark  from  the 
trunk  a  third  or  a  fourth  of  the  way  around  the  tree;  to  twist 
a  wire  tightly  around  the  main  limb  or  around  the  trunk; 
or  to  prune  the  roots.  This  last  is  done  by  plowing  deeply  or 
digging  a  ditch  partly  around  the  tree.  More  trees  fail  to 
bear  from  lacking  roots  than  from  having  too  many  roots. 

These  methods,  although  sometimes  to  be  advised,  seldom 
are  used  by  practised  orchardists.  It  is  much  better  to  produce 
bearing  by  handling  the  soil,  supplying  proper  food,  and  by 
proper  cutting  back.  Bearing  can  be  forced  just  as  surely  by 
these  methods,  and  at  the  same  time  the  trees  will  receive 
what  they  need  in  other  ways.  The  good  effects  will  thus  be 
permanent,  instead  of  lasting  only  two  or  three  years.  In  gen- 
eral, winter  or  spring  pruning  is  conducive  to  growth,  while 
summer  pruning  leads  to  bearing.  If  a  tree  has  not  been  kept 
pruned,  shaping  the  head  and  cutting  back  will  aid  in  making 
it  bear. 

101 


Special  Things  Needed  by  Each  Fruit 


foregoing  part  of  this  book  explains  those  fundamental 
J^  things  which  all  trees  require.  Here  following  are  details 
of  the  few  special  needs  in  which  fruits  differ.  Do  not 
attempt  to  be  guided  only  by  what  is  said  here,  in  caring  for 
your  orchard,  but  go  back  through  the  soil-handling,  planting, 
pruning  and  spraying  chapters,  and  apply  the  suggestions  given 
there  in  connection  with  what  you  get  here. 

APPLE 

Almost  any  soil  will  do  for  apples,  but  they  succeed  best  on 
clay  loam.  The  subsoil  should  be  no  closer  than  four  feet,  if 
you  can  get  a  soil  of  this  kind.  Many  fine  orchards,  however, 
are  growing  on  land  where  the  hard-pan  is  only  eighteen  or 
twenty  inches  from  the  surface.  Put  your  trees  in  the  best  land 
you  can  get,  but  plant  anyhow  if  your  best  land  is  not  the  most 
favorable.  A  slope  is  better  than  a  level,  and  the  finest  apples 
always  grow  on  high  land.  Read  the  chapters  on  Frost,  on  Mois- 
ture Keeping  and  on  Cultivation.  In  them  you  will  find  much 
information  about  the  best  location  for  apples. 

In  all  sections  north  of  Delaware  and  Kentucky,  spring 
planting  is  best;  but  fall  planting  is  successful,  especially  in  the 
South,  if  it  is  done  at  the  right  time.  Trees  for  fall  planting 
should  be  ripened  early  in  the  nursery,  and  then  planted  at 
once  (there  is  only  a  week  or  two  in  the  fall  when  planting 
should  be  done),  so  they  will  grow  a  little  before  winter  comes. 
This  is  to  give  the  roots  a  chance  to  get  moisture  with  which  to 
replace  winter  evaporation,  and  to  develop  new  roots  during 
winter.  But  in  the  North,  under  average  conditions,  the  losses 
of  fall-planted  trees  will  exceed  those  of  trees  planted  in  the 
spring.  Proper  spring  planting  is  always  successful  when  done 
early  enough.  It  is  better  to  get  the  trees  during  November 
and  December,  heel  them  in,  covering  tops  and  all  with  dirt, 
and  then  plant  them  the  first  day  the  ground  is  thawed.  Heap 
up  dirt  about  trees  twelve  inches  or  more  when  planted  very 
early. 

One-year  trees  almost  always  are  best.  There  are  many 
reasons,  but  two  are  enough  to  prove  this.  One-year  trees  can 
be  pruned  and  headed  the  way  you  want  them.  This  training 
they  are  not  likely  to  get  in  the  nursery  during  the  second 
year,  and  that  is  the  time  when  it  must  be  done.  And  one- 
year  trees  will  be  larger  at  the  end  of  four  years  than  will  either 
two-  or  three-year  nursery  trees  planted  in  the  orchard  at  the 
same  time. 

Before  you  plant,  read  again  all  the  entire  matter  on  sub- 
soiling  and  planting.  Dig  tree  holes  with  dynamite,  if  possible. 
This  produces  great  results.  Watch  your  trees  carefully  for  the 
first  two  years  and  prune  them  three  times  each  season  during 
this  time.  Take  especial  pains  to  guard  against  mice  and  rab- 
bits. Bridge-graft  any  trees  that  have  been  girdled.  Never 

102 


SPECIAL   THINGS   NEEDED    BY   FRUITS 

let  three-year-old  trees  bear  more  than  twenty  apples,  four-year- 
old  trees  more  than  fifty,  or  five-year-old  more  than  one  hundred. 
After  five  years,  thin  at  the  regular  rate. 

Pay  attention  to  securing  pollination  of  your  apples.  A 
few  varieties  may  have  the  power  of  fertilizing  their  own  blos- 
soms, but  the  larger  number  of  kinds  do  not.  Baldwin  generally 
is  known  as  a  kind  that  needs  little  outside  help,  yet  in  many 
experiments  where  the  bees  and  winds  were  prevented  from 
carrying  pollen  from  other  trees,  a  thousand  Baldwin  blossoms 
would  set  only  a  half-dozen  gnarly  little  apples. 

By  far  the  greatest  trouble  due  to  insufficient  pollination 
is  not  in  the  total  failure  to  set  fruit,  but  in  the  production  of 
knotty  and  crooked  fruit.  Freezing  will  cause  apples  to  grow 
crooked,  but,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  they  grow  that  way  be- 
cause the  blossoms,  while  fertilized  enough  to  start  the  fruit, 
were  not  fertilized  enough  to  give  it  vigor  and  vitality.  The 
individual  fruits  were  cripples  from  the  beginning.  Therefore, 
provide  plenty  of  chances  for  cross-fertilizing  in  your  orchards, 
and  do  not  depend  upon  trees  of  the  same  variety  fertilizing  each 
other.  See  that  each  tree  in  the  orchard  has  three  or  more 
trees  of  one  or  more  other  kinds  within  a  hundred  and  fifty 
feet. 

Care  must  be  taken,  also,  to  see  that  the  different  kinds  in 
the  same  section  of  the  orchard  bloom  at  the  same  time.  We 
know  of  one  big  orchard  in  which  there  are  only  two  varieties. 
One  is  through  blooming  before  the  other  begins,  so  no  benefit 
is  derived  from  having  the  two  kinds  together. 

Two  classes  are  enough  into  which  to  divide  varieties  accord- 
ing to  blooming  habits.  In  both  the  early  and  late  classes  the 
varieties  will  overlap  each  other  sufficiently.  But  an  early 
bloomer  and  a  late  one  could  not  help  one  another.  Gideon, 
Gravenstein,  Early  Ripe,  Smokehouse,  Stark,  Arkansas  Black, 
Benoni,  Chenango,  Mclntosh,  Maiden's  Blush,  Duchess, 
M.  B.  Twig,  Baldwin,  King,  Fallawater  and  others  bloom  early. 
Wagner,  Yellow  Transparent,  Spitzenburg,  the  Greenings, 
Stayman's  Winesap,  Winesap,  Gano,  Williams'  Early  Red, 
York  Imperial,  Rome  Beauty,  Ben  Davis,  Hubbardston,  Jona- 
than, Spy,  Wealthy,  Delicious,  Missouri  Pippin,  etc.,  bloom 
comparatively  late. 

These  statements  are  based  on  observations  in  New  York. 
They  might  not  be  entirely  correct  in  other  localities.  Watch 
the  trees  in  your  neighborhood  and  make  notes  of  when  they 
bloom.  If  you  find  your  bearing  orchard  is  suffering  from  a 
lack  of  cross  pollenization,  start  at  once  and  top-work  some  of 
the  trees  with  other  good  varieties.  In  about  three  years  you 
can  expect  blossoms  on  these  grafts  or  buds.  When  you  plant 
now,  see  that  this  trouble  is  avoided. 

As  to  varieties — it  depends  on  the  elevation,  the  latitude, 
the  climate  generally,  the  time  of  ripening  desired,  and  the 
purpose  for  which  apples  are  wanted.  Still  the  list  is  not  very 
large.  Probably  twenty-five  varieties  cover  the  good  ones  for 
all  conditions  found  between  Florida  and  Ontario. 

In  the  Piedmont  and  Blue  Ridge  sections  and  the  Delaware 

103 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

Peninsula,  Winesap,  Stayman's  Winesap,  Yellow  Transparent, 
Williams'  Early  Red,  Grimes  Golden,  York  Imperial,  Rome 
Beauty,  Wealthy,  Red  Astrachan  and  Yellow  Newton  are  the 
kinds  to  plant.  The  first  five  of  these  are  the  cream  of  the  list 
for  sections  south  of  the  Maryland  line.  In  southern  Pennsyl- 
vania, West  Virginia  and  similar  localities  all  these  kinds  do 
well,  particularly  Stayman,  Rome  Beauty  and  Grimes  Golden; 
while  Jonathan,  Stark,  Delicious,  Wagner,  Nero,  Hubbardston, 
Mammoth  Black  Twig,  and  Duchess  also  reach  perfection. 
York  Imperial  and  Ben  Davis  do  well,  but  should  not  be  planted, 
because  better  kinds  succeed  as  well. 

As  we  go  north,  and  as  elevations  get  higher,  many  of  these 
varieties  fall  behind  in  size  of  fruit  and  thriftiness  of  tree.  In 
northern  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  New  York  and  similar  localities, 
Stayman,  M.  B.  Twig  and  Delicious  are  of  even  better  quality 
than  they  are  farther  south,  although  they  are  not  quite  so 
large.  Duchess  is  finer  here  than  anywhere  else.  Baldwin, 
Spitzenburg,  the  Greenings,  Stark,  Winter  Banana,  Rome 
Beauty,  Spy,  King  and  Mclntosh  Red  all  succeed  wonderfully 
here.  Mclntosh,  Hubbardston,  Baldwin,  Stayman,  Duchess  and 
the  two  Greenings  do  best  at  the  higher  elevations,  while  others 
thrive  best  at  the  lower  elevation  of  this  section.  Northern  New 
York,  Michigan,  Ontario  and  New  England  comprise  another 
belt  in  which  Baldwin,  Mclntosh,  Spitzenburg,  Spy  and  Green- 
ings, Ingram,  Stayman,  Winter  Banana,  Duchess,  Snow  and 
King  are  best. 

We  will  not  attempt  to  describe  these  varieties  here.  Har- 
rison's regular  catalogue  gives  detailed  descriptions.  The  varie- 
ties named  ripen  at  all  seasons  and  are  adapted  to  various 
purposes.  We  simply  have  told  you  the  names  of  those  few 
kinds  which  we  know  are  best  for  each  section — kinds  that  are 
standard  and  reliable.  You  can  depend  on  this  list,  but  if  you 
think  of  planting  and  are  puzzled,  write  to  us,  giving  full  details, 
and  we  will  take  up  the  matter  with  you  personally. 

The  dangerous  enemies  of  apples  are  as  follows: 

Apple  Rust  (or  Cedar  Rust),  from  r^d  cedar  trees.  This 
fungus  does  most  of  its  damage  in  the  Virginias.  Destroy  all 
cedar  trees  in  the  vicinity.  Apple  Scab,  a  fungus,  shows  its 
presence  by  greenish-brown  spots  which  enlarge  and  run  to- 
gether, forming  good-sized  blotches.  These  later  turn  black. 
On  apples  it  makes  scaly,  blackish  or  cracked  spots,  and  spoils 
them  for  use. 

Bitter  Rot  on  fruit,  and  Canker  on  limbs,  are  due  to  fungi. 
The  small  brown  sunken  spots  spread  quickly  and  cause  the 
whole  apple  to  rot.  Rotten  spots  are  marked  by  rings,  and 
taste  very  bitter.  Collar  Blight  of  apple,  caused  by  bacteria,  is 
almost  the  same  as  Fire  Blight  of  pear,  and  should  be  treated 
in  the  same  way.  Crown  Gall  (bacteria)  attacks  young  trees 
in  the  nursery.  Its  mark  is  a  bunch  of  hairy  roots,  galls,  knots 
or  corky  enlargements  near  the  crown.  Remove  the  trees 
affected. 

Leaf  Blight,  or  Frog  Eye,  a  fungus,  shows  spots  on  leaves 
that  look  like  the  eye  or  ear  of  a  frog.  The  leaves  turn  brown 

104 


SPECIAL   THINGS    NEEDED    BY   FRUITS 

at  these  spots,  and  drop  early.  Fire  Blight  (known  as  Pear  Blight 
or  Twig  Blight)  is  caused  by  bacteria.  It  begins  at  the  end 
buds  on  new  wood,  and  literally  walks  down  over  the  limbs. 
Leaves  die  and  hang  on  all  summer.  Sooty  Blotch  appears 
as  a  smoky  black  deposit  on  nearly  ripe  fruit. 

The  Aphides,  or  Plant  Lice,  are  small,  green,  soft-bodied 
insects  that  live  on  young  twigs  and  on  the  under  sides  of 
leaves.  They  are  sucking  insects,  and  by  boring  into  the  stems 
cause  the  leaves  to  die.  Leaf  Hoppers  are  handsome  little 
yellow  and  red  bugs  that  suck  the  juice  out  of  leaves;  aphides 
treatment  kills  them.  Oyster  Shell  Scale  is  so  called  because 
the  covering  over  the  eggs  of  these  sucking  insects  resembles 
that  shell  in  shape  and  color;  there  are  two  broods  a  season. 
Badly  infected  trees  look  rough  and  sickly. 

San  Jose  Scale  is  a  sucking  insect.  You  can  see  it  in  winter 
as  a  round,  dark  gray  or  black  spot,  the  size  of  a  fly  speck,  with 
a  spot  or  nipple  at  the  center.  When  trees  are  infected  badly, 
a  rough,  scaly  crust  comes  off  when  diseased  twigs  and  bark 
are  rubbed.  On  fruit  the  spots  are  surrounded  by  a  reddish 
ring.  The  young,  which  begin  to  appear  about  the  first  of  June, 
are  lemon-yellow  at  first,  but  soon  cover  themselves  with  white 
scales  and  look  like  wood-ashes. 

Woolly  Aphis  are  sucking  insects  which  infest  the  whole 
tree,  roots  and  all;  they  are  covered  with  a  mass  of  bluish-gray 
fibers,  like  bunches  of  cotton.  Bud  Moths,  when  young,  are 
small,  brown  caterpillars  with  black  heads,  that  chew  the  young 
leaves  and  buds,  which  they  bind  together  in  their  webs. 
Canker  Worms,  or  Measuring  Worms,  hatch  from  eggs  about 
the  time  the  buds  burst,  and  fe»d  on  the  foliage  for  about  four 
weeks;  they  stay  in  the  ground  over  winter  and  lay  eggs  on 
twigs  in  the  spring. 

Curculios,  as  adult  insects,  appear  in  early  spring  and  feed 
on  young  foliage.  They  feign  death  when  disturbed.  The 
eggs  are  laid  in  half-round  cuts  on  the  side  of  fruits.  The  young 
bugs  tunnel  around  within  apples,  pears,  quinces,  etc.  These 
are  not  the  real  apple  worms,  however,  as  those  are  the  larvae  of 
the  Codlln  Moth.  That  insect  hatches  two  broods  a  season. 
The  first  eggs  are  laid  on  leaves  or  young  fruit,  then  the  worms 
enter  fruit  at  the  blossom  end;  the  second  brood  appears  about 
midsummer  and  enters  the  apple  through  the  side.  Control 
the  first  crop  and  the  second  will  give  little  trouble.  This  is 
about  the  most  destructive  insect  that  attacks  apples,  but  is 
controlled  easily. 

After  apple  trees  are  cleaned  up  from  accumulated  damage 
resulting  from  neglect,  two  sprayings  a  season  ordinarily  will 
be  enough  to  protect  them.  A  third  spraying,  however,  will 
almost  invariably  pay  several  times  its  cost,  and  sometimes  is 
required  for  protection. 

PEAR 

Light  or  sandy  soils  are  not  so  good  for  pears  as  heavy 
loams  or  clay.  Pears  stand  more  water  than  peaches  or  apples, 
too,  but  still  should  not  have  wet  feet — a  requirement  that 

105 


HOW   TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

holds  good  generally  in  fruit-growing.  Pears  do  especially 
well  under  the  sod- mulch  system  of  culture.  Always  avoid 
too  much  tillage,  nitrogen  and  stable  manure — give  more  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid. 

Try  to  get  the  trees  to  begin  ripening  wood  and  fruit  earlier 
in  season  than  apple  trees.  Grow  good-sized  trees  in  the  first 
four  or  five  years,  by  careful  planting  and  fertilizing,  then 
make  them  get  down  to  bearing  fruit  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
without  much  regard  to  more  growth.  On  bearing  trees  cut 
back  the  tips  of  new  wood  in  May  or  June,  prune  moderately 
in  the  spring,  and  thin  the  fruit.  You  will  have  no  trouble  in 
getting  plenty  of  pears  of  high  quality  if  you  do  this. 

Kieffer  is  the  kind  for  commercial  orchards  on  a  large  scale, 
because  of  the  sure  crop,  the  quantity  yielded,  and  the  ability 
of  the  fruit  to  stand  handling.  Bartlett  is  not  far  behind, 
however.  It  is  a  summer  pear,  of  finer  quality  for  eating  fresh 
than  Kieffer,  but  it  pays  for  this  by  being  so  mellow  and  tender 
that  it  will  not  stand  so  much  handling.  It  should  be  picked 
a  week  before  fully  ripe. 

Anjou,  Lawrence  and  Clapp's  Favorite  need  no  intro- 
duction to  the  majority  of  planters,  and  each  is  suited  to  a 
special  condition,  under  which  it  is  unexcelled.  Anjou  and 
Lawrence  do  well  higher  up  than  Clapp's  Favorite.  Seckel 
is  the  highest  quality  pear  known.  It  is  small  and  very  mellow. 
Duchess,  Flemish  Beauty,  Le  Conte,  Worden-Seckel,  Garber, 
Manning's  Elizabeth,  Winter  Nelis,  Bosc,  Howell,  Sheldon  and 
Vermont  Beauty  are  good  also,  and  succeed  nearly  everywhere. 
There  are  many  other  varieties  of  pears  which  have  merit,  but 
better  stick  to  two  or  three  best  kinds  for  commercial  orchard. 

Cross-fertilizing  of  blossoms  is  very  important  with  pears. 
Where  this  is  not  sufficient,  the  fruit  is  liable  to  be  small  and 

Eoor,  rather  than  fewer  in  number.  Time  of  blooming  has  to 
e  taken  into  account,  also,  as  varieties  differ  widely.  Anjou, 
Flemish  Beauty,  Garber,  Howell,  LeConte  and  Kieffer,  for 
instance,  ordinarily  will  shed  their  petals  before  the  flower 
buds  of  Vermont  Beauty  and  Winter  Nelis  are  open.  Clapp's 
Favorite,  Manning's  Elizabeth,  Duchess,  Lawrence,  Bartlett, 
Seckel  and  Clairgeau  are  between  these  two  classes,  and  are 
likely  to  be  fertilized  by  both.  Local  information  on  this 
matter  is  valuable.  Spend  a  few  days  in  observing  pear  trees 
blooming  in  the  locality  in  which  you  intend  planting. 

Pear  foliage  is  tougher  than  that  of  most  other  fruits,  still 
many  enemies  have  to  be  reckoned  with.  Leaf  Blight  and 
Fruit  Crack  is  fungus  that  causes  reddish  spots  on  the  tops  of 
leaves,  brown  spots  underneath,  and  pink  spots  and  cracks  in 
the  skin  of  fruit.  For  Fire  Blight,  Scab,  Rot  and  Oyster  Shell 
Scale,  see  the  data  under  Apple.  Pear  Midges  are  mosquito- 
like  flies  which  lay  their  eggs  in  the  little  fruits.  From  these 
hatch  maggots  which  later  cause  the  fruit  to  crack  and  drop, 
then  the  maggots  spend  the  winter  in  the  ground.  Pear  Psylla 
are  sucking  insects.  See  under  Apple  for  the  other  scales, 
Caterpillars,  and  Codling  Moth.  Pear  Slugs  are  greenish  black, 
slimy  worms  that  chew  on  the  upper  sides  of  leaves. 

106 


SPECIAL  THINGS    NEEDED    BY    FRUITS 


PEACH 

Locate  a  peach  orchard  on  a  north  slope  if  you  can,  but  if 
you  can  not,  do  not  hesitate  to  plant  in  a  different  exposure. 
As  with  apples,  the  higher  elevations  produce  the  finer  fruit. 
The  kind  of  soil  makes  little  difference  so  long  as  it  is  well 
drained.  Peaches  will  neither  grow  well  nor  bear  when  they 
have  wet  feet.  Protect  from  frost  as  much  as  possible  in  the 
ways  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  frost.  Peaches  are  the  most 
tender  of  fruit  trees. 

Peaches  must  be  cultivated.  That  is,  the  soil  must  receive 
treatment  which  will  give  the  trees  enough  moisture,  enough 
available  plant  food  and  sufficient  fine  earth  in  which  the  roots 
may  feed.  The  time  to  begin  cultivation  is  a  year  or  more  before 
the  trees  are  planted.  All  that  has  been  said  about  planting 
trees  in  general,  and  about  planting  apple  trees  in  particular, 
applies  to  peach-tree  planting.  In  cultivating  bearing  orchards, 
do  not  plow  them  in  the  spring  until  after  the  blossoms  have 
come. 

When  buying  peach  trees,  remember  that  if  you  can  get  one- 
year-old  stock  at  fifty  cents  each  and  two-  or  three-year-old 
trees  for  nothing,  you  will  find  the  two-  or  three-year  trees  the 
dearer  in  the  end.  Young  trees  should  be  headed  low.  Do  not  be 
afraid  you  cannot  get  the  horses  under  the  limbs,  as  most  of 
them  will  stand  up  out  of  the  way  during  cultivating  time. 
A  small  mule  is  better  than  a  big  horse  in  a  peach  orchard, 
anyway. 

In  pruning  peach  trees,  remember  that  they  bear  fruit  only 
on  wood  a  year  old — that  is,  only  new  wood  this  year  will  pro- 
duce fruit  next  year.  Half  to  two-thirds  of  each  season's  growth 
is  the  right  amount  to  prune  off.  Peaches  will  not  produce 
profit  unless  both  pruning  and  thinning  are  regularly  done 
well.  The  markets  always  have  plenty  of  little,  off-color,  and 
insect-damaged  peaches,  but  never  enough  good  ones.  Grading 
and  packing  has  an  extra-large  share  in  securing  high  prices. 

Growing  peaches  is  a  specialist's  job.  Wonderful  successes 
are  to  be  made  by  studying  the  needs  and  nature  of  this  fruit, 
while  failure  to  do  the  right  thing  almost  invariably  results  in 
disaster.  You  must  watch  every  point  that  has  any  influence 
on  trees  or  fruit  or  price.  Under  good  care,  a  peach  orchard  will 
live  twenty-five  years  or  longer;  but  the  safest  plan  is  to  cal- 
culate on  getting  back  the  cost  of  the  orchard,  and  your 
profit,  from  three  crops,  giving  the  orchard  ten  years  from  the 
time  it  is  planted  in  which  to  do  this.  You  are  likely  to  get 
two  or  three  times  this,  but  you  may  not. 

Of  the  varieties,  Ray  is  in  a  class  by  itself.  Few  others  are 
so  good,  and  none  surpasses  it  when  considered  from  the  stand- 
point of  all-round  excellence.  Ray  and  the  following  twelve 
kinds  are  recommended  for  a  complete  orchard,  ripening  from 
earliest  to  latest,  in  all  of  the  country  east  of  the  Alleghanies, 
from  Georgia  to  Maine:  Carman,  Mountain  Rose,  Champion, 
Moore's  Favorite,  Belle  of  Georgia,  Reeves'  Favorite,  Old 

107 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

Mixon  Free,  Elberta,  Stump  the  World,  Crawford's  Late,  Fox's 
Seedling  and  Chair's  Choice. 

In  Michigan,  Gold  Drop,  Kalamazoo^  Smock  and  Salway 
are  great  successes.  Hill's  Chili,  Champion  and  Crosby  are 
among  the  most  hardy,  and  do  well  far  north.  Another  and 
second-best  list  for  anywhere  east  of  the  Mississippi  river  and 
north  of  Louisiana,  including  the  Atlantic  Coast  states,  in 
order  of  ripening,  would  be  these: 

Mayflower,  Greensboro  and  Hiley  for  first  ripening;  Mamie 
Ross  and  Waddell  for  second;  Slappy  for  third;  Crawford's 
Early  and  Cornet's,  fourth;  Captain  Ede  and  Thurber,  fifth; 
Frances,  Lemon  Free,  Niagara  and  Steven's  Rare  Ripe,  sixth; 
Geary's  Hold-On,  Smock  and  Wonderful,  seventh;  Ford's 
Late  White,  Salway  and  Willett,  eighth. 

Peaches  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  classes  as  listed  are 
adapted  particularly  to  mountainous  sections.  All  of  the  very 
late  kinds  seem  to  thrive  better  on  high  land  than  on  low.  In 
the  mountains  of  western  Maryland  and  eastern  West  Virginia, 
Mountain  Rose,  Billyou's  Late  October  and  other  similar  kinds 
reach  great  perfection,  while  they  do  little  good  in  Delaware 
and  the  Eastern  Shore  of  Maryland.  In  the  same  way,  many  of 
the  kinds  which  succeed  best  at  the  lower  elevations  practically 
are  failures  on  higher  lands.  Before  you  plant,  talk  to  local 
peach  men,  and  learn  what  they  have  grown  successfully  and 
unsuccessfully. 

Planting  of  different  varieties  within  reach  of  one  another 
is  not  so  important  with  peaches  as  with  apples  or  pears,  yet 
it  should  be  done.  All  peaches  in  any  one  neighborhood  seem 
to  bloom  at  about  the  same  time,  regardless  of  when  they 
ripen  fruit.  It  will  not,  therefore,  be  so  necessary  to  guard 
against  the  failure  of  early  and  late-blooming  kinds  to  pollinate 
each  other,  though  it  is  well  to  avoid  setting  solid  blocks  of 
one  kind.  Anything  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  is  a 
safe  distance  to  have  varieties  apart  when  you  want  them  to 
cross-fertilize. 

Peach  trees  and  fruit  are  very  susceptible  to  injury  by 
enemies;  but,  with  the  exception  of  against  one  or  two  troubles, 
good  spraying  and  other  care  will  protect  them  almost  com- 
pletely. 

Brown  Rot,  or  Manilla  Rot  is  a  fungus.  It  comes  first  in  a 
small  brown-rotted  area,  which  spreads  rapidly,  especially 
during  wet  weather.  These  rotten  places  later  become  covered 
with  powdery  white  spores.  Little  Peach  seems  to  be  a  relative 
of  yellows;  the  fruit  grows  to  about  half  the  normal  size,  and 
stays  green,  sour  and  bitter  until  late.  Peach  Leaf  Curl  is 
due  to  a  fungus,  which  causes  the  leaves  to  curl,  thicken,  turn 
brown  and  drop. 

Peach  Rosette  is  another  bacterial  disease,  something  like 
yellows.  Shoots  on  affected  trees  grow  in  bunches  and  remain 
short.  Yellows  is  the  disease  for  which  we  have  no  remedy  but 
the  ax.  It  is  not  known  that  Yellows  is  caused  by  bacteria,  but 
this  is  thought  to  be  the  cause,  and  since  the  remedy  is  the  same, 
we  include  it  in  that  class.  Watch  for  the  premature  ripening 

108 


SPECIAL  THINGS    NEEDED   BY   FRUITS 

of  fruit,  undersized  yellow  leaves  that  set  at  right  angles  to  the 
twigs,  and  tufty  bunches  of  shoots  anywhere  on  the  tree. 

Black  Peach  Aphis  are  shiny  black  sucking  insects  Svhich 
attack  both  roots  and  tops.  For  San  Jose  Scale,  see  apples. 
This  always  is  the  same,  wherever  it  appears,  and  remedies 
need  not  be  changed.  Curculios  that  attack  pears  are  about  the 
same  as  those  that  attack  apples.  In  all  stone  fruits — cherry, 
•peach,  plum,  etc. — curculio  larvae  infest  the  flesh  next  the  seeds, 
causing  the  fruit  to  rot  and  drop.  Fruit  Bark  Beetle,  or  Shot- 
Hole  Borer,  attacks  only  weakened  trees.  The  little  black  bugs 
dig  a  channel  an  inch  long  under  the  bark.  Lecanium  Scale 
is  a  large  brown  scale,  hatching  in  midsummer  and  crawling 
about  for  a  short  time;  it  is  a  chewing  insect. 

PLUM 

There  are  four  classes  of  plums,  each  having  a  predominating 
characteristic  for  which  it  is  valuable.  The  American  or  native 
class,  marked  N,  is  very  hardy.  Its  varieties  bear  many 
individual  fruits  of  the  smaller  sizes.  The  Japanese  class,  marked 
J,  bears  choice  fruit,  and  is  adapted  to  the  widest  range  of 
territory.  Trees  of  varieties  in  this  class  are  hardier  than  peaches, 
but  not  so  hardy  as  apples.  The  European  class,  marked  E, 
bears  the  finest  fruit  of  all.  It  succeeds  over  a  more  limited 
area  than  the  other  types. 

Plums  must  not  be  grown  on  soil  that  is  too  wet,  but  they 
ought  to  have  plenty  of  moisture,  as  they  will  not  stand  dry 
weather  well.  Heavy  lands  are  better  than  light,  although  the 
Japanese  kinds  do  well  on  soils  lighter  than  the  others  will 
succeed  in.  Two-year  trees  are  the  best  to  plant.  The  work 
to  be  done  is  much  the  same  as  with  the  cherry,  peach  or  apple, 
and  you  can  safely  follow  the  directions  given  in  the  chapter  on 
planting,  in  the  distance  tables,  and  elsewhere. 

Plums  must  be  pruned.  Some  kinds  need  more  than  others. 
The  upright-growing  varieties  must  be  pruned  by  a  system 
entirely  different  from  those  used  with  the  sprawling  kinds. 
Fruit  is  borne  on  wood  two  or  more  years  old.  Nearly  all 
kinds  require  tip  pinching.  Keep  the  head  open  so  that  light 
can  get  in,  and  keep  the  bearing  wood  cut  back  enough  to  insure 
that  trees  will  not  break  with  their  loads  of  fruit  after  a  reason- 
able amount  of  thinning  is  done. 

Red  June  (J),  Satsuma  (J),  Wickson  (J),  Burbank  (J), 
Abundance  (J),  Bradshaw  (E),  October  Purple  (N),  Ogon  (N), 
and  Shropshire  Damson  (E),  all  are  good  sorts.  They  will 
overlap  in  blooming  time  enough  to  cross-fertilize.  Two  or 
more  varieties  should  be  planted  withing  reach  of  one  another 
for  this  purpose.  An  individual  plum  tree  will  set  fruit,  but 
it  will  not  be  so  fine  as  that  produced  when  another  kind  assists. 

Enemies  to  plums  are  overcome  easily  by  proper  treatment, 
yet  do  serious  damage  when  they  are  left  alone.  The  bacteria 
of  Black  Knot  and  of  Crown  Gall  are  the  same  with  the  plum 
as  with  the  cherry  or  apple.  Brown  Rot  of  plum  is  the  same 
fungous  trouble  that  comes  to  peaches,  while  the  Scales  (suck- 

109 


HOW   TO   GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

ing  insects),  and  the  Curculios,  Borers,  Shot-Hole  Borer,  Slug 
and  Caterpillars  (chewing  insects)  all  attack  plums.  All  of  these 
are  the  same  as  these  enemies  on  cherry  or  peach  trees. 

QUINCE 

In  this  country  there  are  grown  far  too  few  quinces,  even 
for  home  use.  Their  flavor  alone  would  make  a  market  for  two 
or  three  dollars*  worth  with  every  family  in  the  land,  were  the 
quinces  to  be  had.  This  amount  should  buy  from  fifty  to 
seventy-five  quinces.  It  is  easy  to  pack  and  transport  the  fruit 
in  perfect  condition.  Ordinary  apple  hampers,  boxes,  and  bar- 
rels, or  peach  and  grape  baskets,  are  the  packages  in  which  to 
market  them.  Quinces  are  high-priced  fruit,  and  good  speci- 
mens are  worth  taking  the  best  care  of.  Use  wrappers  for  the 
individual  fruits,  and  line  the  package  with  either  plain  paper 
or  the  corrugated  caps.  They  should  be  packed  without  too 
much  pressure,  yet  must  not  be  loose.  They  should  be  picked 
while  still  a  little  green,  even  for  home  use,  and  ripened  in  a 
dark  room. 

Quince  trees  will  grow  in  any  soil,  but  succeed  best  in  heavy 
clay  loam.  They  like  plenty  of  moisture.  The  average  hillside 
or  top  is  too  dry  for  the  best  results,  but  a  soggy  place  will  not 
do.  The  higher  they  are  planted,  however,  the  less  trouble 
there  will  be  from  fungi.  Underdrain  a  good  damp  soil  and  it 
will  grow  fine  quinces — trees  and  fruit.  Thorough  tillage  is 
almost  necessary,  yet  a  very  heavy  straw  or  hay  mulch  may  do 
good  work.  The  roots  run  close  to  the  surface,  so  do  not  cul- 
tivate deeply. 

Pruning  must  be  done  regularly  and  by  a  system.  Head 
back  the  new  growth  and  thin  well  each  spring;  then,  if  possible, 
cut  the  tips  back  again  in  June  or  July.  Quinces  are  real  trees, 
not  shrubs,  if  treated  right.  The  trees  should  have  short  trunks 
and  a  round,  shapely,  well-branched  head.  Start  with  a  straight 
stem  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  high,  and  grow  your 
trees  as  they  should  be  grown.  Keep  all  suckers  cut  off  from 
the  trunk.  Remember  that  the  fruit  is  borne  on  shoots  of  the 
same  year's  growth,  which  grow  from  wood  at  least  two  years  old, 
and  prune  accordingly. 

It  is  best  to  select  at  least  two  varieties  when  you  plant, 
on  account  of  cross-fertilizing  of  blossoms.  If  you  plant  only 
two  trees,  get  different  kinds.  In  an  orchard  you  could  use  three 
or  four  varieties  to  advantage.  Orange,  Champion,  Meech, 
Bourgeat  and  Mammoth  all  are  good.  For  home  use  the  first 
three  are  to  be  preferred,  but  all  are  valuable  commercially. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  quince  trees  are  attacked  by 
so  many  enemies  that  they  cannot  be  grown  in  the  East.  There 
are  many  enemies,  but  not  so  many  as  attack  the  peach,  nor 
are  they  so  difficult  to  control.  Quince  foliage  is  tougher  and 
will  stand  stronger  sprays  than  peach.  Black  Rot  is  a  fungus 
which  attacks  quinces  at  the  blossom,  and,  when  they  are 
about  half  grown,  fruits  rot,  shrivel,  and  hang  on  for  months. 
Blights,  Rust,  Scab,  and  other  fungi,  also  attack  Quince. 

no 


SPECIAL  THINGS    NEEDED   BY   FRUITS 

Aphides  and  the  Scale  are  the  sucking  insects  attacking  the 
Quince,  while  Curculio,  Codlin  Moth,  Bag  Worm,  Caterpillers 
and  Borers  are  the  chewing  insects.  These  are  all  the  same  as 
on  the  apple. 

CHERRY 

In  all  parts  of  the  East,  cherries  seem  to  thrive  especially 
well,  but  it  remained  for  Colorado  and  the  Pacific  coast  to  show 
what  could  be  done  in  growing  them.  New  York  has  some  com- 
mercial cherry  orchards,  but  the  East  does  not  grow  one-tenth 
of  the  cherries  it  uses.  Go  into  the  better  markets  during  the 
cherry  season,  and  you  will  find  that  California  and  other 
Western  states  have  supplied  nearly  all  of  this  fruit. 

Medium-sized,  one-year,  unbranched  trees,  especially  if 
they  are  of  sweet  varieties,  are  surer  to  grow  than  heavier  ones. 
Two-year  trees,  however,  are  good  when  properly  dormant. 
There  is  a  world  of  difference  in  the  growth  and  habits  of  sweet 
and  sour  cherry  trees.  In  general,  it  can  be  said  that  the  sweet 
do  best  on  high  land  and  in  mountainous  districts,  while  the 
sour  reach  their  greatest  perfection  down  lower,  and  on  lighter 
soil.  If  there  is  a  choice,  select  a  light  loam,  gravel  or  similar 
soil,  although  cherries  will  thrive  in  any  place  that  is  not 
damp.  They  will  not  succeed  to  any  extent  in  a  seepage  place 
that  is  not  drained.  Trees  that  are  propagated  on  Mazzard 
stock  are  hardier  and  thriftier  under  adverse  conditions  than 
those  on  Mahalab  or  native  stock;  hence,  get  trees  on  Mazzard 
stock  for  exposed  places  and  for  northern  districts. 

Cherry  trees  are  prone  to  grow  too  fast,  splitting  the  bark 
on  trunk  or  limbs  and  doing  other  damage.  For  this  reason, 
and  because  the  fruit  ripens  much  earlier  than  other  tree  fruits, 
cultivation  should  stop  about  the  beginning  of  June.  Never 
use  very  heavy  mulches  under  the  trees,  nor  much,  if  any, 
stable  manure.  Nitrate  of  soda,  or  any  fertilizer  containing 
much  nitrogen,  is  liable  to  do  more  harm  than  good.  This,  of 
course,  depends  upon  the  soil.  A  poor  soil,  not  deeply  torn  up 
at  the  start,  will  demand  more  nitrogen  and  cultivation  to 
feed  its  cherry  trees  than  a  porous  and  mellow  soil.  But,  in 
general,  cherries  will  thrive  best  when  the  ground  is  seeded  to 
grass  and  kept  that  way. 

The  less  cherry  trees  are  pruned,  the  better  for  them.  It 
is  necessary  to  cut  back  the  trees  at  the  start,  and  to  shape 
the  head  while  it  is  growing.  Cut  out  limbs  that  cross  each 
other  let  in  the  sunlight,  and  remove  dead  limbs.  That  is 
about  all  that  will  be  needed.  Fruit  is  borne  only  on  wood  that 
is  two  or  three  years  old.  As  for  marketing,  only  a  few  words 
are  to  be  said,  yet  these  are  of  great  importance.  Remove  all 
imperfect  cherries,  then  pack  the  perfect  ones  in  wooden  boxes 
such  as  are  shown  in  the  packing  scene  on  page  117.  They 
should  be  arranged  in  rows,  and  must  not  be  loose.  On  almost 
any  city  market  you  can  get  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  cents 
a  quart  for  good  cherries  packed  in  this  way. 

The  choice  of  varieties  depends  upon  the  color  and  flavor  you 

in 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

want  more  than  on  anything  else.  Black  Tartarian,  Governor 
Wood,  Napoleon,  Schmidt,  Bing,  Lambert,  Windsor  and  Yellow 
Spanish  are  good  sweet  kinds,  which  vary  in  color  from  black 
to  red,  brown,  and  bright  yellow.  Baldwin,  Dye  House,  Early 
Richmond,  English  Morello,  May  Duke,  Montmorency, 
Reine  Hortense  and  Wragg  are  good  sour  kinds  of  various 
colors.  English  Morello,  Montmorency  and  Early  Richmond 
are  late  bloomers,  Baldwin  is  medium,  and  the  rest  are  com- 
paratively early,  yet  doubtless  all  will  overlap  enough  to  cross- 
fertilize.  Do  not  plant  one  kind  alone;  much  better  results  can 
be  secured  when  two  or  more  different  varieties  are  within  a 
hundred  feet  of  one  another. 

Cherry  trees  do  not  have  many  serious  enemies,  but  should 
be  sprayed  and  looked  after  regularly.  Black  Knot  can  be 
recognized  by  the  thick  swellings  on  twigs,  which  later  develop 
into  black,  warty  growths,  and  break  out  all  over  the  tree.  It 
is  caused  by  bacteria.  Brown  Rot  of  cherry  is  the  same  as  of 
peach.  Plum  Leaf  Blight,  or  Shot  Hole  Fungus,  appears  in 
small  purplish  spots,  which  turn  brown  and  drop  out,  leaving 
a  little  round  hole  in  the  leaves.  Cherry  Aphides  are  shiny 
little  plant  lice,  brown  and  black,  found  thickly  on  the  under 
sides  of  leaves  in  May  and  June.  They  cause  leaves  to  curl 
and  drop  early.  Woolly  Aphis  is  the  same  on  cherry  as  on  apple, 
as  is  also  San  Jose  Scale.  Curculio  of  cherry  is  about  the  same 
as  apple  curculio,  eating  away  the  flesh  of  fruit  next  the  seed. 
Slug  is  the  same  as  on  peach.  If  Birds  eat  the  cherries,  hang 
bits  of  bright  tin  on  limbs,  or  put  a  stuffed  or  live  owl  or  cat 
in  the  tree.  If  mulberries  or  service  berries  are  near,  birds  will 
not  bother  cherries  so  much. 

GRAPES 

Grapes  are  grown  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  north  and  south, 
on  high  land  and  on  low;  they  seem  to  thrive  nearly  as  well  in 
one  place  as  in  another.  The  kind  of  soil  makes  little  difference, 
though  it  is  probable  that  a  heavy  clay  is  better  than  a  sandy 
soil.  Vines  thrive  among  rocks,  on  steep  hillsides,  and  on  rich 
bottom  lands.  Drainage  is  essential,  as  with  all  fruits,  and  in 
low  pockets  of  land  frost  is  likely  to  catch  blossoms.  An  ex- 
posure to  the  south  or  the  east  is  better  than  to  the  north  or 
west.  We  cannot  give  the  exact  reasons,  but  know  that  both 
vines  and  fruit  are  attacked  by  more  enemies  when  growing  on 
low  land  than  on  high.  Although  it  is  subject  to  the  troubles 
mentioned,  from  which  hillside  vineyards  are  free,  a  valley  floor 
will  grow  the  finest  grapes. 

Vines  are  heavy  feeders.  Their  roots  extend  far  out  and 
make  a  net-work  in  the  soil.  The  proper  distance  to  plant  will 
be  from  six  to  eight  feet  apart,  although  sometimes  this  can  be 
changed  to  advantage.  Strong  varieties,  on  fertile  soil,  need 
more  room  than  small  growers  on  poor  soil.  Before  planting 
is  done,  the  ground  should  be  worked  even  more  thoroughly 
and  deeply  than  for  a  tree.  Remember  that  you  are  planting 
something  which  will  last  a  generation,  not  a  crop  to  be  removed 

112 


SPECIAL   THINGS    NEEDED    BY   FRUITS 

in  a  season  or  two.  Plow  the  land,  use  dynamite  to  dig  the 
holes,  and  have  a  clearance  inside  the  hole  of  at  least  twenty 
inches.  After-cultivation  should  be  complete  and  continuous, 
stopping  each  year  only  in  time  to  ripen  the  wood  and  fruit 
early  in  fall.  Mulch  systems  do  not  succeed  with  grapes. 

Use  one-year  vines  if  you  can  get  them,  though  two-year 
vines  are  nearly  as  good.  Cut  the  little  vines  back  to  three  or  four 
buds,  cut  the  roots  back  to  ten  inches  in  length,  and  then  plant 
deeply,  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring.  You  can  hardly  get 
grapes  too  deep  within  reason.  These  newly  planted  vines 
should  be  mulched  heavily  with  straw  and  manure,  for  two 
feet  about  the  vine.  They  require  lots  of  nitrogen,  which  the 
mulch  will  supply  while  it  is  saving  moisture.  Add  whatever 
commercial  fertilizer  the  vines  may  lack,  as  indicated  in  the 
chapter  on  feeding  plants.  For  the  first  season,  the  canes  may 
be  tied  to  stakes,  or  allowed  to  run  on  the  ground.  After 
that  they  should  be  trained  on  trellises,  to  make  easy  the 
spraying,  cultivation  and  picking. 

For  home  trellises,  use  the  form  you  like  or  can  get  best. 
In  field  vineyards,  the  form  most  widely  used  consists  of  posts 
six  feet  high,  on  which  are  three  wires — one  at  the  top,  and  the 
others  below,  about  eighteen  inches  apart.  A  better  way;  in 
our  opinion,  is  to  put  a  cross  arm  on  the  post,  about  five  leet 
from  the  ground,  and  string  the  three  wires  on  this,  one  at 
each  end,  and  one  in  the  middle.  Train  the  leaders  of  the  vine 
up  the  post,  in  either  case,  then  let  the  side  branches  grow  out 
on  each  wire,  in  both  directions,  half-way  to  the  next  vine. 

The  pruning  of  grape-vines  has  to  be  understood  before  it 
can  be  done  with  any  satisfaction  or  good  results.  At  the  same 
time,  a  vine  will  not  grow  nor  bear  as  it  should  if  it  is  not  pruned, 
and  if  it  is  not  pruned  right.  Grapes  are  borne  on  new  wood 
(of  the  same  season's  growth),  and  these  shoots  spring  from 
buds  on  wood  of  the  last  year's  growth.  This  applies  to  all 
American  (so  called)  varieties,  but  not  to  the  European  or 
Scuppernong  kinds,  which  bear  on  shoots  from  two-year  wood. 
So,  when  we  start  with  a  new  vine  which  has  grown  one  summer, 
all  the  shoots  except  one  should  be  cut  off  in  the  next  winter 
(December  to  February),  and  this  one  should  be  cut  back  to 
three  or  four  buds.  When  the  next  growth  starts,  only  two  of 
the  strongest  canes  should  be  allowed  to  live,  and  these  two 
will  form  the  main  trunk  of  the  vine. 

The  branches  that  arise  from  these  two  main  stems  during 
the  second  season  will  go  into  the  winter  with  a  good  crop  of 
buds.  Your  two-year-old  vine  should  bear  not  more  than 
ten  or  a  dozen  bunches  of  grapes;  so,  in  the  second  winter, 
cut  off  all  the  branches  except  three  or  four,  and  cut  these  back 
to  two  or  three  buds  each,  because  each  bud  will  average  two 
bunches.  In  this  way,  thinning  is  done  by  pruning.  ^This 
principle  holds  good  with  any  vine,  no  matter  how  old  it  is. 
One  set  of  roots  can  mature  properly  not  more  than  from  forty 
to  eighty  bunches,  depending  on  the  kind  and  age.  Each  winter, 
cut  every  vine  back  so  that  it  carries  only  half  as  many  buds 
as  you  want  bunches  of  grapes  next  season. 


HOW   TjO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

A  hard,  well-ripened  cane  the  size  of  your  little  finger  is 
better  than  one  thicker  or  slimmer,  and  very  thick  ones  are 
worth  the  least  of  all.  As  the  fruit-bearing  shoots  spring  each 
year  from  wood  of  the  previous  season's  growth,  and  from 
none  older,  your  vines  will  be  a  few  feet  longer  each  year. 
About  every  three  years,  it  will  be  necessary  to  let  two  or  three 
new  canes  start  from  the  original  trunk,  then  cut  away  entirely 
the  wood  that  has  been  bearing.  Treated  in  this  way,  a  vine 
will  bear  heavy  crops  every  year  for  you,  your  children,  and 
your  grandchildren. 

Cross  fertilizing  is  absolutely  essential  with  grapes.  Go 
through  the  woods  and  see  the  big,  healthy  wild  grape-vines 
that  are  full  of  bloom,  yet  do  not  set  a  single  bunch.  At  bloom- 
ing-time cut  a  branch  from  a  vine  bearing  flowers  of  the  oppo- 
site sex,  take  it  near  the  barren  vine  and  thrash  it  about  a  little. 
A  great  number  of  the  blossoms  on  the  vine  heretofore  fruitless 
will  be  fertilized,  and  will  be  loaded  with  grapes.  This  little 
experiment  will  convince  you  of  the  need  of  cross-fertilizing  for 
any  fruit.  Not  all  varieties  of  grapes  blossom  at  the  same  time, 
but  they  overlap  enough  to  do  the  work.  Any  two  kinds  seem 
to  be  able  to  fertilize  each  other. 

Campbell's  Early,  Moore's  Early,  Concord  and  Worden 
are  good  black  varieties.  Delaware,  Wyoming,  Catawba,  Brighton 
and  Agawam  are  good  red  ones,  and  Pocklington,  Niagara, 
Green  Mountain  (Winchell)  and  Diamond  are  good  white  sorts. 

Grapes  have  many  enemies,  almost  all  of  which  yield  readily 
to  spraying  and  other  care.  One  method  of  preventing  damage 
is  to  bag  the  bunches.  This  works  every  time,  and  does  not 
cost  much.  When  the  grapes  are  about  half-grown,  paper  bags 
are  slipped  over  the  bunches,  and  either  tied  around  the  stem, 
or  split  at  the  top  and  the  two  sides  wrapped  around  the  cane. 
These  bags  will  stay  on  until  the  grapes  are  ripe,  and  prevent 
damage  from  all  insects  and  fungi.  Other  remedies  for  all 
grape  troubles  are  given  in  the  spraying  directions,  and  here 
follow  descriptions  of  the  enemies. 

Black  Rot,  a  fungus,  first  appears  on  the  leaves  as  small, 
reddish  brown  spots,  and  about  two  weeks  later  as  light  spots 
on  the  fruit,  beneath  which  the  fruit  has  decayed,  These 
spots  increase  in  size  until  they  involve  the  whole  berry,  which 
finally  turns  black,  shriveled  and  crumpled.  Downy  Mildew, 
another  fungus,  appears  about  the  time  the  vines  blossom. 
There  comes  a  dense,  white  velvety  growth  on  the  under  side 
of  leaves  and  on  shoots  and  fruit.  This  keeps  up  all  summer. 
Grape  Anthracnose,  or  Bird's  Eye  Rot,  affects  all  green  parts 
of  the  vine,  but  particularly  the  shoots  and  fruit.  Little  round 
brown  dots  with  a  border  appear  on  the  shoots,  and  gray, 
red  and  brown  rings,  one  inside  the  other,  on  the  berries. 

The  Flea  Beetle  is  a  steel-blue  bug  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  long,  the  young  of  which  eat  away  the  upper  surface  of 
the  leaves.  Grape  Berry  Moths  look  about  the  same,  but  from 
their  eggs,  which  are  laid  in  June  or  July,  hatch  white  worms 
that  eat  into  the  grapes.  Grape  Phylloxera  (insects)  are  indicated 
by  fleshy  growths  on  the  under  side  of  leaves,  and  by  swelled 

114 


SPECIAL  THINGS    NEEDED    BY   FRUITS 

and  knotty  roots.  Throw  infected  vines  away  and  get  clean 
stock.  The  young  caterpillars  of  the  Grape  Plume  Moth  hatch 
early  in  the  spring  and  bind  together  several  leaves  at  the  ends 
of  shoots,  feeding  on  them.  Grape  Root  Worms  feed  on  the 
roots  of  grapes,  staying  in  the  ground  all  winter,  and  then,  in 
the  spring,  come  up  and  feed  on  the  leaves  for  a  few  days.  The 
Grape-vine  Leaf-hopper  is  a  sucking  insect,  infesting  the  under 
sides  of  leaves.  Rose  Bugs  are  long-legged,  grayish  brown 
beetles,  about  half  an  inch  long.  They  are  chewing  insects. 

STRAWBERRY  AND  OTHER  SMALL  FRUITS 

All  that  has  been  said  about  the  care  of  the  soil  for  tree  fruits 
applies  to  those  which  grow  on  vine  and  bush  and  plant.  Even 
pruning  of  the  small  fruits  should  be  done  with  the  same  prin- 
ciples in  mind  as  when  pruning  a  fruit  tree.  Less  thinning  is 
required,  however,  unless  it  be  with  strawberries.  Strawberries 
are  the  best  possible  inter-crop  for  an  orchard.  With  them  you 
can  get  a  good  income  from  the  ground,  and  give  the  trees  the 
needed  cultivation.  Do  not  plant  any  berries,  or  other  crop, 
nearer  than  four  feet  to  the  trees. 

In  handling  any  intercrop  between  orchard  trees,  remember 
that  you  must  not  stir  the  soil  after  the  first  of  August  at  the 
latest.  It  will  be  better  left  alone  after  the  first  of  July.  Straw- 
berry plants  do  not  ripen  up  and  become  dormant  till  the  ground 
freezes  hard,  but  fruit  trees  must  be  entirely  dormant  before 
any  hard  frosts  come,  or  great  damage  will  result.  The  same 
remarks  apply  to  watering  the  intercrop.  Quite  often  it  is 
possible,  even  in  the  East,  to  irrigate  part  or  all  of  a  strawberry 
field.  For  the  plants  this  would  be  a  desirable  thing  in  the  fall, 
but  it  would  be  very  bad  for  the  trees. 

The  train  loads  of  berries  that  go  rolling  to  the  big  cities 
every  May  and  June  prove  that  strawberry  growing  is  an 
important  industry  in  itself,  without  regard  to  the  plants 
in  young  orchards.  On  the  Delaware  and  Maryland  Peninsula, 
in  parts  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  in  California,  and  in  the 
Northwest,  wide  sections  have  specialized  on  berry-growing. 
In  these  places,  nearly  every  station  has  an  ice-plant  near,  has 
a  dozen  or  more  berry-buyers'  offices,  and,  in  season,  long  lines 
of  refrigerator  cars  are  loaded  every  day.  Go  to  these  stations 
in  the  morning  and  see  the  strings  of  rigs  coming  in  from  the 
surrounding  country,  loaded  with  crates  of  berries  picked  since 
daylight. 

Strawberries  are  one  of  the  quickest  money  crops.  They 
mature  a  crop  fourteen  months  from  planting,  and  this  can  be 
sold  for  cash.  It  costs  so  little  to  plant  a  field  that  no  farmer 
is  too  poor  to  do  it.  They  will  grow  anywhere,  in  nearly  any 
soil,  except  clean  white  sand  or  soggy  clay.  The  fields  in  north- 
ern Canada  and  in  Florida  and  Texas  seem  to  thrive  about  as 
well  as  those  in  Maryland  or  Missouri.  There  are  varieties 
for  every  purpose,  bearing  firm  berries  and  soft  berries,  ripening 
early  and  late.  They  can  be  depended  upon  for  profit,  and  for 
the  specialist  they  offer  most  attractive  opportunities. 

"S 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

Young  plants,  that  is,  plants  that  never  have  borne  fruit, 
are  the  only  ones  to  use.  After  a  plant  has  borne  two  crops, 
its  old  roots  get  dark,  wiry,  and  finally  nearly  all  die.  A  young 
growth  starts  above  or  below  the  old  roots,  but  these  roots  never 
amount  to  much.  Young  plants  have  white,  fibrous  roots,  and 
firm,  well-developed  crowns  and  stalks,  which  contain  much 
stored-up  nourishment  for  use  when  ground  is  frozen  solid,  or 
is  too  dry  to  allow  the  roots  to  gather  more.  Another  important 
thing  about  plants  is  that  they  inherit  the  bearing  characteristics 
of  their  parents.  A  plant  produced  by  another  that  has  been 
well  cared  for,  fed  properly,  and  which  has  borne  a  heavy  crop 
of  large,  firm  berries,  will  likely  do  the  same  if  given  good  care. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  plant  produced  by  a  parent  that  has  been 
neglected,  starved  or  dried  out,  and  which  bore  few  berries  or 
small  berries,  will  have  a  tendency  to  make  few  fruits,  of  inferior 
size. 

It  seldom  pays  to  get  plants  from  an  old  fruiting  field.  Get 
them  from  a  breeding  field  or  bed.  The  producer  should  make 
his  parent  plants  bear,  to  see  what  they  will  do  (no  two  plants 
bear  alike,  and  the  poor  bearers  must  be  destroyed).  But  the 
primary  purpose  of  a  breeding  bed  is  the  production  of  plants, 
and  for  the  best  results  it  must  be  cultivated  and  fertilized 
accordingly.  In  starting  a  field  or  bed,  it  costs  little  more  to 
get  plants  that  are  right  in  every  way,  and  it  often  makes  a 
hundred  per  cent  of  difference  in  the  returns. 

Almost  any  soil  is  a  good  soil  for  strawberries.  It  need  not 
be  deep.  The  depth  to  plow  and  tear  it  up  will  vary  with  the 
kind  of  soil  and  with  its  physical  condition.  Strawberries  are 
naturally  shallow-rooted  plants,  and  must  be  encouraged  continu- 
ally to  send  their  roots  deeper,  in  order  to  be  sure  of  a  supply  of 
moisture  and  to  feed  in  soil  of  an  even  temperature.  A  light 
soil  should  be  torn  up  no  more  than  four  inches,  while  a  heavier 
one  must  be  mixed  well  as  deep  as  eight  inches.  We  would 
suggest  that  you  go  back  and  read  over  the  soil-handling  direc- 
tions given  in  earlier  chapters.  The  essential  features  are  to 
have  the  soil  fine  and  loose,  in  good  physical  shape,  but  with 
no  large  air-spaces.  The  surface  should  be  covered  with  a  loose 
dust  mulch  to  prevent  evaporation.  Plowing,  disking,  harrowing 
and  rolling  are  all  needed,  the  amount  of  each  depending  on 
the  situation.  Berries  must  have  plenty  of  moisture  and  plenty 
of  food,  and  half  the  battle  to  get  these  is  in  putting  the  soil  in 
shape. 

The  richer  the  land  the  better  for  berries.  Barnyard  manure 
is  one  of  the  best  possible  fertilizers.  Five  hundred  to  eight 
hundred  bushels  an  acre  is  not  too  much,  and  it  should  go 
on  with  spreader.  They  need  lots  of  nitrogen.  If  dry,  irrigate 
them  during  April,  May  and  June,  if  possible.  It  Witt  pay  (see 
pages  9  and  10). 

Spring  is  the  time  to  plant  in  all  sections  north  of  North 
Carolina.  South  of  that  state  fall  planting  is  advisable  some- 
times, yet  if  planting  is  done  during  late  winter  or  very  early 
spring,  whenever  the  ground  can  be  worked,  better  results 
usually  will  be  had.  In  the  North,  planting  should  be  done  the 

116 


Garden  trellis  for  grapes,  also  grapes  under  glass. 


Grapes  bear  only  on  new  wood.    Each  bud  will  average  two  bunches  on  new  shoot. 


Bartlett  pear  orchard.    Sod  mulch  is  ordinarily  better  than  cultivation  for  pears. 


The  way  to  pack  cherries  to  realize  big  prices — but  it  requires  proper  packages. 

117 


Commercial  orchards  of  cherries  pay  more  than  apples  if  proper  care  is  taken.    These 
trees  have  been  cultivated,  sprayed,  shaped  and  watched  right. 


Strawberries  are  the  standard  inter-crop  in  young  orchards.    They  always  pay. 


Scenes  near  stations  where  co-operative  marketing  is  carried  on.  Growers  are  bring- 
ing in  fruits  and  produce  of  all  kinds,  and  selling  it  right  there  for  highest  market 
prices.  Future  fruit-growing  success  depends  on  co-operative  selling. 


Fruit  stand  in  New  York.   Note  packages.   Prepare  your  fruit  for  this  and  you  will  have  no 
trouble  in  getting  high  prices.   Careful  spraying,  grading  and  packing  most  essential. 


SPECIAL   THINGS    NEEDED    BY    FRUITS 

first  day  after  February  when  the  ground  can  be  worked,  after 
it  has  been  prepared  properly,  as  outlined.  Mark  the  rows  with 
a  cord  or  a  scratch  made  with  pegs  in  a  plank.  Transplanting 
machines  will  do  the  work  about  twice  as  fast  as  it  can  be  done 
by  hand,  but  not  so  well.  The  very  best  way  to  set  strawberry 
plants  is  to  get  down  on  your  knees  and  use  a  trowel  or  dibble. 
The  one  great  trouble  with  machines  is  that  they  set  plants  too 
deep  or  too  shallow.  The  crown  should  come  right  at  the  sur- 
face, not  a  half  inch  below  or  above.  Roots  are  better  spread 
out  as  tree  roots  must  be,  but  many  growers  simply  drop  them 
into  a  hole  and  pack  the  dirt  firmly.  A  little  experience  will 
teach  any  one  how  to  plant  properly. 

There  are  three  systems  of  planting  in  common  use:  the 
matted  row,  the  hill  and  the  hedge  system.  The  former  is  the 
only  practicable  system  for  commercial  fields.  With  it  the 
plants  are  put  in  rows  three  or  four  feet  apart  and  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  first  summer  runners 
are  left  to  form  as  many  new  plants  as  they  will  in  a  space  a  foot 
or  so  wide  (beyond  this  they  are  cut  off  with  a  cutter  on  cul- 
tivator). With  the  hill  system,  one  plant  is  made  do  the  work 
in  each  place,  and  these  hills  may  be  from  twelve  to  twenty 
inches  each  way.  All  runners  are  cut  off.  The  hedge  system  is 
really  a  modification  of  the  hill  system,  and  consists  of  rows  of 
hills,  each  plant  having  six  inches  or  so  of  clean  space  about  it. 
The  hill  and  hedge  systems  make  lots  of  work,  though  they 
produce  fine  berries,  and  are  to  be  advised  for  all  or  part  of 
home  gardens. 

Mulching  strawberries  is  done  to  keep  soil  moist  and  cool 
in  summer,  to  protect  the  berries  from  mud  and  dirt  when 
ripe,  and  to  protect  plants  in  winter.  The  winter  protection  need 
not  be  put  on  till  after  the  ground  freezes,  as  the  plan  is  to  pre- 
vent alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  and  not  to  keep  the  ground 
from  freezing.  Such  a  mulch  should  be  loosened  up  or  raked  to 
side  of  row  in  spring.  Winter  protection  is  not  needed  south 
of  Maryland.  Mulches,  where  winter  protection  is  not  desired, 
should  be  put  on  in  spring,  when  the  first  thawing  begins. 

Fields  or  beds  will  bear  two  good  crops  and  no  more.  They 
may  be  renewed  for  one  more  year,  and  sometimes  for  two,  by 
plowing  all  the  matted  row  except  four  to  six  inches,  applying 
manure  heavily,  working  back  to  the  remaining  plants  with  a 
cultivator  the  thrown-out  soil,  then  cutting  out  all  the  old 
plants  left,  and  enough  of  the  new  ones  to  leave  those  that 
remain  six  or  eight  inches  apart.  This  work  should  be  done  as 
soon  as  possible  after  the  crop  is  removed.  If  the  old  plants 
are  diseased,  burn  over  the  field  before  plowing.  This  will  not 
kill  the  plants.  . 

Cross  pollination  of  strawberries  is  very  important.  The 
blossoms  are  of  two  kinds.  One  kind  is  pistillate  only  (such  as 
Haverland  and  Bubach).  These  are  called  imperfect,  and  they 
cannot  set  fruit  without  help  from  another  variety.  The  other 
kind  are  both  pistillate  and  staminate,  and  are  called  perfect. 
They  can  set  fruit  if  no  other  kind  is  near,  and  they  can  fertilize 
other  pistillate  kinds,  but  their  fruit  is  finer  if  they  are  cross* 

119 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

pollinated  by  another  staminate  kind.  Reliable  growers  usually 
give  the  sex  of  varieties  in  their  catalogs.  One  row  of  staminate 
blossoms  will  fertilize  two  rows  of  pistillate  kinds.  It  is  well  to 
alternate  varieties  to  some  extent,  no  matter  what  kinds  are 
planted,  because  plenty  of  pollination  always  results  in  the 
finest  fruit.  The  sex  of  a  blossom  can  be  told  from  its  appear- 
ance. The  pistillate  kinds  will  have  at  the  bottom  of  the  flower 
only  a  cone-shaped  mass  or  body  (the  undeveloped  fruit.) 
The  staminate  kinds  have  this  and  also  many  upright  "stamens" 
on  the  ends  of  which  the  pollen  is  borne. 

We  will  recommend  just  five  kinds  for  the  commercial 
grower — Millionaire,  Klondyke,  Gandy,  Haverland  and  Parsons. 
For  home  gardens  the  list  can  be  extended  to  a  dozen  or  more, 
and  they  should  be  selected  with  consideration  for  color,  quality 
of  flesh  and  season  of  ripening  wanted.  Get  those  kinds  that 
bear  firm  berries  or  soft  ones,  that  are  deep  or  pale  red,  and 
that  ripen  all  the  way  from  earliest  to  latest.  There  is  much 
talk  now  of  an  everbearing  Strawberry.  Doubtless  before  long 
this  will  be  developed  to  a  satisfactory  state,  and,  when  it  is, 
we  can  have  Strawberries  from  May  until  October. 

Berries  should  be  picked  with  the  stems  on,  as  they  keep 
better  this  way.  Of  course  no  one  would  think  of  trying  to  ship 
berries  without  stems.  Picking  should  be  done  while  the  berries 
are  cool.  The  best  time  is  early  in  the  morning,  before  the  sun 
has  warmed  them  up.  Do  not  let  them  remain  in  the  field,  nor 
let  the  sun  shine  on  them.  If  you  do  not  take  them  to  the  rail- 
road station  and  the  refrigerator  car  immediately,  get  them 
into  some  kind  of  cool  or  cold  storage  without  delay.  The 
market  package  is  standard  all  over  the  country — the  quart 
boxes  carried  in  a  crate.  Put  the  berries  into  these  boxes  as 
you  pick.  A  basket  carrier  is  needed  for  fast  work. 

The  berries  should  not  be  picked  while  there  is  any  green 
about  them.  It  does  not  pay.  Grading  should  be  done  carefully. 
Pickers  will  have  to  do  this,  and  they  must  be  taught  its  im- 
portance. Good  prices  depend  on  uniform,  proper  grading  and 
packing  just  as  much  with  Strawberries  as  with  apples.  In 
seasons  of  low  prices,  and  to  take  care  of  the  culls,  in  any  season, 
large  amounts  of  berries  may  be  processed — made  into  the 
fruit  syrups  used  in  confectionery  and  in  flavors.  At  least 
five  cents  a  quart  can  be  realized  in  this  way.  The  equipment 
is  not  difficult  to  install  or  handle,  and  any  Strawberry  neigh- 
borhood can  afford  one.  Write  us  and  we  shall  be  glad  to  give 
you  the  details. 

Enemies  of  small  fruits  fall  into  the  same  classes  as  those 
of  tree  fruits,  and  must  be  combated  with  equal  care.  Among 
those  of  Strawberry  plants,  Leaf  Blight  needs  no  description. 
It  is  a  fungus.  Root  Aphis  are  the  little  blue  insects  that  live 
on  the  roots  and  suck  out  the  sap.  Leaf  Roller  is  a  small  brown 
caterpillar.  Slug  is  the  same  as  on  cherry  or  peach.  Strawberry- 
crown  Borers  are  the  young  of  a  drab  beetle  about  half  an  inch 
long,  and  Strawberry  Weevils  are  little  black  beetles  that  lay 
their  eggs  in  the  fruit  buds  of  the  berries,  then  go  below  on  the 
stem  and  cut  it,  causing  it  to  wilt  and  drop  over. 

120 


SPECIAL   THINGS    NEEDED    BY   FRUITS 

Currant  Anthracnose  appears  as  small  brown  or  black  spots 
on  the  under  side  of  leaves.  Leaf  Spots  of  other  kinds  also  cause 
the  leaves  to  yellow  and  drop  early.  All  are  caused  by  fungi. 
Currant  Aphis,  Currant  Leaf  Hopper,  Four-lined  Leaf  Bug, 
San  Jose  Scale  and  Scruffy  Scale  attack  currant  bushes.  All  are 
sucking  insects.  Currant  Borers  and  Currant  Worms  are  chewing 
insects,  needing  no  description.  Most  of  these  enemies  also 
attack  other  small  fruits.  Gooseberry  Mildew  attacks  both  leaves 
and  berries.  Its  mark  is  the  cobwebby  covering  on  leaves  and 
buds,  and  it  is  a  fungus.  Gooseberry  Fruit  Worms  make  their 
way  into  the  berries  and  eat  out  all  the  pulp.  They  are  chewing 
insects.  Leaf  Spot  or  Blight,  Mildew,  Tomato  Rot,  all  are  fungous 
enemies  of  the  tomato.  Bacteriosis  of  tomato  is  caused  by  bac- 
teria. The  marks  are  sudden  wilting  of  foliage,  and  a  change 
from  green  to  yellow  and  brown.  Many  insects  infest  tomatoes; 
the  treatment  for  all  is  the  same.  What  is  known  as  Sun  Scald 
on  raspberries,  etc.,  really  is  Anthracnose,  a  fungus.  The  marks 
are  purple  spots  on  young  shoots,  which,  growing  and  extending, 
finally  girdle  and  kill  the  canes.  Crown  Gall  of  the  small  fruits 
is  the  same  as  that  of  peach.  It  comes  from  bacteria.  The 
same  is  true  of  Orange  Rust.  Rose  Scale  can  be  seen  on  the  canes, 
near  the  ground.  Blackberry  Gallmaker,  Raspberry  Cane  Borer, 
Slug,  and  Tree  Cricket,  all  are  chewing  insects  on  small  fruits. 

SUMMARY 

The  location  for  an  orchard  should  be  chosen  with  reference 
to  elevation,  air-drainage,  water-drainage,  soil  and  nearness 
to  transportation  facilities. 

Varieties  differ  in  season  of  ripening,  color,  flavor  and  texture 
of  fruit,  but  to  an  even  greater  extent  in  adaptation  to  various 
elevations,  latitudes,  etc.,  in  habit  of  growth,  and  in  disease- 
and  insect-resisting  ability.  Carefully  choose  the  kinds  suited 
to  your  locality. 

Cross-pollination  is  most  important.  To  secure  it,  plant 
different  varieties  that  bloom  at  the  same  time,  within  150 
feet  of  each  other. 

For  any  one  locality  there  are  only  a  half  dozen  or  so  kinds 
that  head  the  list.  Commercial  orchards  should  contain  no 
more  than  three  or  four  kinds,  and  small  orchards  only  two 
kinds.  With  carload  lots  of  one  kind  you  can  command  the 
attention  of  buyers  and  get  much  higher  prices. 


121 


Marketing 


THE  big  profits  in  growing  fruit  depend  upon  the  manner  in 
which  fruit  is  harvested  and  marketed,  more  than  upon  any 
other  element.  Picking,  grading,  packing  and  selling  really 
constitute  one  operation,  since  all  help  toward  one  object — the 
placing  of  the  fruit  in  the  hands  of  the  users  in  the  best  possible 
condition.  While  the  average  grower  has  much  to  learn  about 
varieties,  feeding,  pruning,  spraying,  and  other  care,  he  must 
count  his  work  a  failure  unless  he  knows  also  how  to  get  the 
money  for  his  fine  fruit. 

Fruit  should  be  picked  at  exactly  the  right  time.  A  good 
way  to  tell  when  to  pick  most  fruits  is  to  lift  them  up  gently — 
if  they  are  ready  to  pick,  they  will  come  from  the  spur  easily 
when  you  give  them  a  little  twist.  Unless  there  is  a  tree  trouble, 
or  unless  a  variety  is  out  of  its  latitude,  this  is  a  reliable  guide 
for  apples.  Pears  sometimes  should  be  picked  when  they  are 
a  little  greener.  The  softer  varieties,  like  Bartlett  and  Seckel, 
especially,  should  come  off  a  week  before  they  take  on  their 
full  colors.  Peaches,  plums,  cherries  and  grapes  are  best  when 
picked  at  the  stage  when  they  have  colored-up  well,  but  still 
are  firm  and  hard.  This  is  for  shipping  or  keeping.  For  im- 
mediate home  use,  let  all  fruits  except  quinces  mellow  on  the 
trees.  In  no  other  way  can  they  get  such  flavor  as  is  given  by 
the  sun  and  the  wind. 

Be  sure  to  leave  the  stems  on  all  fruit  except  peaches  and 
some  plums.  Apples  from  which  twenty  per  cent  of  the  stems 
are  missing  will  be  objected  to  on  the  best  markets.  Cherries 
and  plums  will  not  keep  without  stems.  (But  cherry  stems 
ought  to  be  clipped  with  shears  after  picking,  leaving  from  a 
quarter  to  a  half-inch  only  on  the  fruit.)  With  any  kind  of 
fruit,  these  stems  come  from  a  fruit  spur,  and  from  only  one 
of  several  fruit  buds.  If  you  leave  that  spur  and  the  buds 
undamaged,  they  will  set  fruit  again  next  year.  To  break  the 
spur  or  any  of  the  buds  means  that  you  are  deliberately  killing 
a  half-dozen  fruits  of  the  next  two  or  three  years'  crop.  See 
a  detailed  explanation  of  this  in  the  chapters  on  thinning  and 
pruning. 

Use  baskets,  rather  than  bags,  to  pick  in,  either  of  wood  or 
canvas.  The  wood  ones  generally  are  best.  Get  those  with 
the  hinged  handles  that  will  enable  you  to  empty  the  fruit 
out  without  dropping  it  an  inch.  Baskets  that  are  open  at  the 
bottom  are  to  be  had  on  the  market,  and  are  very  good.  You 
can  have  a  blacksmith  make  hooks  with  which  the  basket 
can  be  hung  at  the  side  of  the  ladder  or  to  a  limb,  where 
both  hands  can  reach  it,  or  a  strong  hook  made  in  the  shape 
of  an  "A"  will  hold  two  baskets.  If  trees  are  high,  have  a 
rope  and  pulley  with  which  a  helper  on  the  ground  can  lower 
the  baskets  while  the  picker  works.  Fruit  in  bags  will  be  bruised 
when  pickers  climb  over  ladders  and  limbs.  Employ  men  who 
will  pick  with  both  hands — the  one-handed  picker  is  closely 
related  to  the  one-handed  milker.  Better  stop  picking  during 

122 


PICKING,   PACKING   AND    MARKETING 

hot,  murky  days.  No  picking  equals  that  done  with  your  hands, 
yet  some  of  the  patent  pickers  might  be  used  for  the  fine  fruits 
out  on  the  ends  of  tall  limbs. 

Ladders  should  be  light  and  strong.  Extension  ladders  will 
be  good  for  high  trees,  but  ordinarily  the  best  are  made  from 
dead  white  pine  poles  cut  in  the  woods,  with  cleats  nailed  on. 
These  are  light,  very  strong,  and  cheap. 

For  peach  trees,  a  three-foot  picking  bench  is  often  what  is 
needed.  The  next  higher  is  a  two-way  step-ladder,  with  a  plat- 
form near  the  top  on  which  to  set  the  basket.  This  is  good  for 
young  apple  trees  too.  A  longer  ladder  arrangement,  that  can 
be  moved  about  easily,  is  made  by  using  a  couple  of  strong 
wheels,  of  any  kind  and  size,  and  axle,  and  two  handles  like 
wheelbarrow  handles.  The  lower  ends  of  two  six-foot  uprights 
are  bolted  to  these  handles  near  the  axle,  while  the  upper  ends 
are  bolted  to  the  ladder  eight  feet  or  so  from  the  bottom.  Lad- 
ders should  be  laid  into  trees  gently,  and  fruit  should  be  handled 
like  eggs. 

As  soon  as  possible  after  the  fruit  leaves  the  twigs,  get  it 
into  cool  storage.  Some  of  the  best  growers  do  not  allow  picked 
fruit  to  remain  in  the  orchard  or  grading -houses  more  than 
thirty  minutes.  Fruit  cooled  quickly  will  keep  longer  and  in 
much  better  condition  than  that  left  to  lie  around.  Under  no 
conditions  pile  fruit  on  the  ground  or  grass  in  the  orchard. 
Crates,  bushel-boxes,  barrels,  etc.,  are  all  good  for  use  in  carry- 
ing apples  and  pears  from  orchard  to  grading  or  storage  house. 
Peaches,  plums  and  grapes  should  go  in  baskets  or  hampers, 
which  are  firm  and  solid.  Shaky  and  yielding  baskets  will 
bruise  fruit. 

Low-wheeled,  broad-tired  wagons,  with  a  platform  higher 
than  the  wheels,  and  no  bed — just  a  four-inch  rim — are  best 
to  haul  fruit  on.  At  the  sorting-house  or  storage-place  have 
platforms  just  about  as  high  as  the  wagon  platform,  to  make 
unloading  quicker  and  easier.  One  grower  uses  large  coffee- 
boxes  to  haul  apples  in,  and  loads  these  side  by  side  on  a  wagon 
made  by  fastening  two  long,  springy  poles  to  the  front  and 
rear  bolsters  of  a  long-coupled  wagon.  Spring  wagons  are  made 
that  do  good  work,  and  one  or  two  automobile  makers  offer 
big  trucks  that  are  efficient. 

What  is  first-class  fruit?  Take  apples,  for  instance.  The 
grading  of  other  fruits  is  governed  to  a  certain  extent  by  the 
rules  that  apply  with  apples.  That  is,  all  fruit  is  graded  for 
color,  size  and  perfection,  and  any  one  who  can  correctly  grade 
apples  can  grade  the  other  fruits  by  applying  common  sense. 
"Standard"  big  apples  must  be  more  than  two  and  one-half 
inches  in  diameter.  A  standard  small  apple  must  be  more  than 
two  and  a  quarter  inches.  These  are  the  firsts,  in  regard  to 
size.  The  next  standard  smaller  size  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch  less 
in  each  case.  Size  makes  little  difference  in  the  selling  price, 
so  long  as  the  apples  are  up  to  the  mark  in  other  things.  All  the 
apples  in  one  package  must  be  uniform  in  size  and  in  color. 
The  rules  of  all  selling  associations  of  the  West,  and  the  regu- 
lations under  which  fruit  is  judged  at  all  the  big  shows  are  that 

123 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

the  diameters  of  the  different  apples  in  the  same  package  shall 
not  vary  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch.  Most  graders  make 
only  two  classes  for  color — the  brilliant  apples  and  the  pale 
ones. 

After  size  and  color  come  shape  and  condition.  Lop-sided 
or  uneven  apples  are  not  wanted.  Of  course,  this  is  a  matter 
of  variety  to  a  certain  extent,  but  the  idea  is  to  have  them  as 
even  and  smooth  as  possible.  Worm-holes  and  all  other  insect 
damage,  fungi  damage  and  bruises  must  not  be  there.  Judges 
will  insist  on  fruit  being  ninety-five  per  cent  perfect  in  this. 
The  fruit  must  be  flawless  to  get  high  prices.  The  other  fruits 
are  governed  by  the  same  general  rules,  each  in  its  own  way. 
Grade  your  fruit  so  that  in  one  package  you  have  only  those 
specimens  of  about  the  same  color,  and  of  the  same  size  to  within 
a  quarter  of  an  inch.  Never  mix  varieties. 

A  packing-house,  or  grading-house,  should  have  plenty  of 
wide  doors,  and  usually  is  filled  with  tables.  Grading  tables 
are  sloping,  with  padded  rims  and  tops.  The  fruit  is  brought 
from  the  orchard  and  slowly  poured  down  these  tables  past 
the  sorters,  who  separate  and  direct  it  into  different  chutes 
which  lead  to  canvas  or  other  receptacles  that  will  not  bruise. 
Often  the  whole  table  top,  chutes,  baskets  and  guides,  etc.,  can 
be  made  of  canvas  better  than  of  any  other  material.  Grading 
is  done  with  the  eye,  mostly,  but  beginners  may  find  that  a 
thin  board  with  holes  the  exact  diameter  they  want  the  apples 
will  help  to  train  the  eye.  Try  the  apples  into  the  holes  when 
you  hesitate. 

There  are  many  grading  machines,  nearly  all  made  by  cut- 
ting holes  of  the  right  size  in  an  inclined  board,  and  then  rolling 
the  fruit  over  these  holes.  The  best  grader  we  have  seen  is 
in  use  in  the  Hamilton  orchard,  in  Colorado.  It  is  the  first 
real  grading-machine,  and  is  run  by  power.  The  owner  of  this 
machine  cuts  the  holes  in  belts.  If  he  wants  six  sizes,  or  three 
sizes,  he  uses  that  many  belts,  and  cuts  holes  of  one  size  every 
few  inches  in  each  belt.  Then  a  series  of  drums  or  pulleys  to 
which  power  can  be  applied  are  mounted  on  a  frame,  so  that 
when  the  belts  are  on  they  will  be  end  to  end.  If  the  belts  are 
four  feet  long,  three  would  make  a  machine  twelve  feet  long. 

Hamilton  used  two  sets  of  these  belts,  side  by  side,  for  apples — 
one  side  for  the  highly  colored  ones,  and  the  other  for  the  paler 
ones.  A  trough  is  built,  with  the  belts  for  bottoms.  Felt  or 
broom  hangers  turn  the  fruit  and  brush  it  into  holes.  Suppose 
the  holes  in  the  first  belt  are  two  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diam- 
eter. When  all  the  apples  are  poured  on  it,  and  the  belts  re- 
volved, those  apples  of  less  than  that  size  will  drop  through  the 
first  belt  to  a  canvas  chute  below,  and  the  larger  ones  will  be 
carried  on  to  the  next  belt,  which  has  holes  two  and  five-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  last  belt  in  the  series  can  have 
very  large  holes,  or  the  biggest  apples  can  go  over  the  end.  Such 
a  grading-machine  can  be  made  at  home  for  less  than  a  hundred 
dollars. 

Most  fruit  growers  can  afford  to  build  a  house  underground, 
or  partly  underground,  for  their  fruit;  and  this  is  the  best 

124 


PICKING,   PACKING   AND    MARKETING 

possible  storage,  excelling  the  buildings  cooled  by  ice  and 
ammonia,  because  all  the  original  fine  flavor  is  retained,  and 
the  apples  do  not  lose  so  much  from  shrinkage.  If  you  have 
to  store  in  an  ordinary  cellar,  keep  the  temperature  as  uniform 
as  possible,  at  40  degrees  or  under,  provide  plenty  of  ventilation, 
remove  warm  and  impure  air  and  let  in  fresh,  cool  air.  Sewer 
pipe  and  chimney  material,  properly  placed,  will  do  this.  Let 
your  cold  air  in  at  the  floor,  and  drain  the  other  out  at  the  ceil- 
ing. It  is  not  good  for  the  fruit  or  the  people  to  store  fruit  in  a 
cellar  under  a  dwelling. 

A  storehouse  can  be  made  cheaply  by  digging  partly,  or 
entirely,  into  a  hill,  and  then  putting  over  a  wooden  frame  a 
layer  of  concrete  in  the  form  of  an  arch,  six  inches  through  or 
thicker.  The  floor  should  be  of  concrete.  Such  a  house  should 
be  not  wider  than  twenty  feet,  but  may  be  as  long  as  you  require. 
It  does  not  take  a  very  big  space  in  which  to  store  several 
thousand  bushels.  We  know  of  such  a  house  with  a  capacity 
of  seventy-five  hundred  bushels,  which  cost  only  eleven  hun- 
dred dollars. 

The  fall  it  was  built,  the  owner  had  four  thousand  bushels 
of  apples.  At  picking-time,  he  was  offered  eighty-five  cents  a 
bushel,  and  the  buyer  said  this  was  fifteen  cents  above  the 
market.  None  of  them  knew  of  the  storage-house.  Finally  the 
grower  took  them  to  it.  When  they  saw  this,  they  immediately 
offered  him  a  dollar  and  a  quarter  for  all  the  apples  he  had. 
The  difference  between  these  two  offers  would  have  paid  more 
than  the  cost  of  the  house,  without  using  it.  So,  by  storing 
his  apples,  this  grower  realized  nearly  a  dollar  and  a  half  for 
them  that  year.  Such  facilities  make  you  independent  of 
current  markets. 

The  temperature  in  an  underground  house  can  be  kept 
below  fifty  degrees  after  the  first  of  October,  by  taking  in  cool 
night  air  and  shutting  out  warm  day  air.  During  November 
it  can  be  lowered  to  any  degree  wanted,  and  with  proper  care 
of  the  doors  and  ventilators,  the  temperature  will  not  vary 
a  half  degree  all  winter.  The  right  temperature  at  which  to 
best  keep  various  fruits  is  as  follows:  Apples  39°,  Cherries 
40°,  Grapes  36°,  Nuts  35°,  Oranges  36°,  Pears,  Peaches,  Plums, 
Prunes  and  Quinces  35°,  Vegetables  35°,  Watermelons  35°. 

Some  growers  grade  and  pack  their  apples  as  soon  as  they 
are  picked,  while  others  store  them  in  bulk,  and  grade  them 
when  they  are  ready  to  sell.  The  plan  to  use  depends  on  the 
market.  In  any  case,  have  plenty  of  barrels,  hampers,  baskets 
or  boxes.  Use  boxes  whenever  possible.  It  is  safe  advice  to 
suggest  that  you  pack  in  boxes  all  the  apples  that  are  fit  for 
storing,  and  barrels  for  only  those  that  go  into  consumers'  hands 
at  once,  or  for  the  poorer  grades  that  go  to  drying  and  processing 
houses.  Barrels  have  been  the  common  package  in  the  East, 
but  other  packages  are  fast  displacing  them.  Hampers  and 
bushel  baskets  are  good  where  the  shipping  distance  is  only 
a  couple  of  hundred  miles,  particularly  for  fall  apples,  and 
those  which  are  too  good  for  vinegar  or  apple-butter.  The  standard 
barrel  for  this  country  is  seventeen  and  one-eighth  inches  in 

125 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

diameter  at  the  head,  inside;  the  staves  are  twenty-eight  and 
a  half  inches  long,  the  chimes  three-fourths  of  an  inch  deep, 
and  the  barrel  at  the  bulge  is  sixty-four  inches  in  circumference, 
or  about  twenty-one  inches  in  diameter.  The  capacity  should 
be  as  near  as  possible  ninety-six  quarts — three  bushels. 

Packing  in  barrels  needs  little  explanation.  Make  at  least 
two  grades  of  apples,  and  it  is  better  to  make  four  or  five.  Face 
three  layers  with  the  stems  down  in  the  bottom,  then  put  fruit 
in  to  fill  up,  either  by  pouring  and  shaking,  or  by  placing  each 
apple  by  hand.  The  latter  is  best.  Face  three  rows  on  top 
with  the  stems  up.  Put  the  same  size  and  color  of  fruit  all  the 
way  through  the  barrel.  The  top  layer  should  come  an  inch  or 
two  above  the  top  of  the  staves.  Then  put  the  lid  on  top  of 
these  and  force  it  into  place  with  a  press,  or  pole.  Screw  and 
lever  presses  are  both  good;  the  latter  is  the  handiest,  especially 
the  kind  that  locks  the  pressure  on  while  you  nail  in  the  head. 
The  hard,  unyielding  sorts  of  apples  should  be  squeezed  less 
than  softer  ones.  Thus  Spies  will  stand  only  an  inch  or  so, 
while  Greenings  should  go  down  at  least  two  inches.  Do  not 
leave  them  loose  in  the  barrel,  yet  do  not  squeeze  them  too 
much.  Some  packers  use  a  lace-paper  circle  under  head  of  the 
finer  grades.  It  always  is  a  good  plan  to  line  the  barrels  with 
paper,  and  to  use  a  pad  on  the  top  and  bottom,  inside.  This 
pad  may  be  of  corrugated  board,  but  the  best  ones  are  made  of 
excelsior.  The  packing-pad  should  be  thick  enough  to  prevent 
bruising,  yet  not  so  thick  as  to  make  a  slack  barrel.  When 
apples  are  stored  in  barrels,  then  sold  without  repacking,  they 
should  have  a  double-thick  "winter"  pad  put  under  the  head 
when  taken  out  of  storage. 

With  hampers  and  baskets,  grading  should  be  the  same,  but 
there  is  little  packing  to  do.  Simply  pour  them  in  gently.  A 
few  growers  face  the  top  layer  and  use  a  corrugated  board  under 
the  lid.  The  lids  cannot  squeeze  the  apples  much.  Hampers  go 
to  consumer  with  the  minimum  of  rough  handling,  yet  this  is 
a  style  of  packing  that  is  not  good  for  shipping  more  than  two 
or  three  hundred  miles,  nor  for  other  than  early  apples. 

"Take-home"  baskets  are  another  thing.  They  are  used  with 
all  fruit.  The  idea  is  to  get  a  package  that  is  attractive,  strong 
enough  to  be  useful  afterward,  and  of  a  size  that  will  hold 
enough  fruit  to  be  sold  at  retail  for  a  quarter-  or  a  half-dollar — 
enough  for  one  family  a  day  or  a  meal.  Such  baskets  can  be 
packed  in  the  orchard  and  shipped  to  the  cities  in  big  crates, 
which  keep  the  baskets  from  shifting  and  the  fruit  from  shift- 
ing in  the  baskets.  Only  the  finest  fruit,  carefully  graded,  should 
be  used. 

The  standard  boxes  are  ten  by  eleven  by  twenty  inches,  and 
the  "specials"  are  ten  and  a  half  by  eleven  and  a  half  by  eigh- 
teen. The  first  is  used  three-fourths  of  the  time.  The  two 
sizes  are  needed  to  accommodate  different  sizes  of  apples  or 
pears,  but  no  others  should  be  used.  These  sizes  contain  a 
little  less  than  a  bushel,  when  level  full,  but  the  necessary 
bulge  makes  their  capacity  more  than  a  bushel.  In  them, 
however,  fruit  is  not  sold  by  the  bushel,  but  by  the  number  of  apples 

126 


PICKING,   PACKING   AND    MARKETING 

or  pears  they  carry,  of  a  certain  size,  or  tier.  The  box  sizes  named 
here  have  been  proved  by  long  experience  to  be  best.  Do  not  let 
any  one  tell  you  to  use  some  odd  size.  Following  is  an  expla- 
nation of  how  many  apples  are  in  a  box,  by  all  the  different 
packs  and  with  all  sizes  of  fruit.  In  a  standard  box  fruit  2% 
inches  in  diameter  makes  a  4^-tier  pack  (a  tier  is  a  column 
up  and  down,  the  length  of  the  box);  2^  makes  a  4j^-tier, 
2^  a  4-  tier,  3>i  a  sJi-tier,  3^  a  3-tier,  3^  and  larger  a  2^- 


tier. 

We  recommend  that  growers  use  only  the  diagonal  pack. 
It  is  a  little  harder  to  learn,  but  is  greatly  superior,  both  in 
efficiency  and  in  looks,  to  the  straight-packed  boxes,  which 
are  little  better  than  barrels  for  carrying.  Fruit  in  straight 
packs  will  always  bruise,  and  always  will  have  to  go  into  the 
"slightly  damaged"  class.  Of  course,  no  fruit  should  ever  be 
put  into  boxes  without  definite  system.  Even  facing  a  row  on 
top  and  bottom  has  been  tried  and  abandoned.  Therefore,  the 
figures  given  here  refer  to  the  diagonal  system  only.  Any  apple 
packed  in  a  barrel,  unless  with  the  greatest  of  care  in  handling 
all  the  way,  is  a  damaged  specimen  when  it  reaches  the  consumer. 
A  good  box  will  deliver  it  almost  perfect,  therefore  use  boxes 
whenever  you  can. 

NUMBERS    OF   APPLES   IN   BOXES,  AND   ARRANGEMENT. 

Number          Size  Number  Number      Number 

apples       expressed  rows  apples  layers  Box 

in  box         in  tiers  wide  Pack  in  row  deep  used 

52  2^  2^  2-2  4-4  4  Standard 

>8  2^  3  2-2  4-5  4  Special 

3^  2-2  4-4  4  Standard 


7»  3%  3^2  2-2  4-5  4  Standard 

80  3^3  3^  2-2  s-s  4  Standard 

88  3^  3^  2-2  5-6  4  Standard 


96  3^2  3%  2-2  6-6  4  Special 

104  $14  zlA  2-2  6-7  4  Special 

112  3^  3M  2-2  7-7  4  Special 

120  3^  zY*  2-2  7-8  4  Standard 

150  4H  4^  5-2  6-8  5  Standard 

163  43^  4^  3-2  6-7  5  Standard 

I7S  4^  4^  3-2  7-7  S  Standard 

165  4H  4^  3-2  7-8  5  Special 

200  4}^  4^-5  3-2  8-8  5  Special 

Just  how  to  arrange  the  apples  for  each  pack  is  difficult  to 
describe,  although  it  is  learned  easily  by  experience.  The  be- 
ginner soon  will  discover  that  certain-sized  apples  fit  best  one 
way,  and  others  another  way.  This  is  the  basis  of  all  the  systems. 
For  instance,  with  the  four-and-a-half  tier,  163  apple  pack,  the 
bottom  layer  is  started  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner  with 
two  apples,  placed  side  by  side.  Not  one  back  in  the  corner 
and  the  other  out,  but  both  across^  the  corner.  In  spaces  be- 
tween these  apples,  and  at  their  sides,  three  more  apples  are 
placed,  ^  with  a  fourth  at  the  left-hand  end  of  this  row.  The 
third  diagonal  row  has  five  apples,  in  the  spaces  between  and 
alongside  the  four  in  the  second  row.  This  process  is  continued 
till  a  full  layer  is  made.  As  you  pack,  force  the  apples  back 
against  the  ones  put  in  first.  The  second  layer  of  this  pack, 

127 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

following  out  the  system  of  putting  the  next  apples  in  the 
hollows  between  the  last  ones,  has  an  apple  right  in  the  corner, 
two  more  in  front  of  it,  with  a  third  to  the  left  of  the  two, 
making  the  second  row,  then  five  in  the  third  row,  and  so  on. 
As  you  fill  the  box,  put  the  biggest  apples  at  the  center  of  the 
box.  When  the  last  layer  is  reached,  there  should  be  a  bulge 
at  the  center  of  at  least  an  inch.  When  the  thin  lid  is  nailed  on, 
the  boards  will  bend,  holding  the  apples  between  a  spring, 
in  a  way,  and  taking  advantage  of  the  first  great  point  in  the 
superiority  of  the  box  over  the  barrel — the  flexible  package. 
All  kinds  of  apples  can  be  packed  in  boxes.  The  usual  plan  is 
to  pack  only  the  finer  ones.  But,  if  an  apple  is  worth  growing, 
it  is  worth  taking  care  of,  and  we  are  not  advocating  half-way 
measures  anywhere  in  this  book. 

Other  packs  are  put  up  on  exactly  the  same  lines.  You  will 
soon  learn  how  by  doing  it.  Remember  that  the  object  is  not 
the  system  itself,  but  to  get  the  apples  to  the  consumer  in  the 
best  shape  possible.  Some  apples  will  be  loose  in  any  of  these 
classes,  and  with  these  it  is  advisable  to  use  cardboard  between 
the  layers.  Some  growers  also  use  corrugated  paper  on  the  top 
and  bottom  of  box.  In  all  cases,  every  box  should  be  lined 
with  two  pieces  of  paper.  This  comes  cut  to  the  sizes  wanted. 
In  using,  it  is  necessary  to  put  a  fold  or  pleat  in  each  sheet 
where  it  goes  into  the  lower  corners,  to  prevent  tearing  when 
the  bulge  is  made.  Take  a  sheet  in  both  hands,  fold  it  toward 
you  with  fingers,  then  back  again,  then  draw  it  across  your  knee. 
Apples  should  be  wrapped  in  paper.  This  undoubtedly  pre- 
vents wilting  and  keeps  the  air  from  them.  A  tissue,  made  for 
the  purpose,  is  better  than  anything  else.  It  comes  ready  cut 
in  the  right  sizes,  which  are  either  ten  by  ten  inches  or  eight 
by  ten,  and  ready  printed,  too,  if  wanted.  The  cost  of  these 
wrappers  is  about  35  cents  a  thousand. 

Get  a  neat  and  attractive  lithographed  label,  showing  an 
orchard  scene  and  your  name,  etc.,  to  go  on  the  end  of  each  box  or 
barrel.  It  is  best  also  to  have  stencils  or  large  rubber  stamps  with 
which  to  mark  each  package  with  exactly  what  is  in  it,  as  "3-tier, 
88,  Stayman  Winesap,"  and  your  name  and  address.  If  you  grow 
good  fruit  and  use  care  in  getting  it  to  customers,  you  are 
entitled  to  the  benefit  of  the  good-will  you  establish.  Never 
make  the  mistake  of  trying  to  get  the  old  packages  back  for 
use  the  next  season.  It  pays  to  use  new  boxes  or  barrels  each 
time.  An  old  barrel  or  box  will  condemn  the  fruit  it  carries, 
right  away.  This  applies  to  fruit  packages  of  any  kind.  Where 
to  buy  barrels,  boxes,  hampers,  baskets,  depends  upon  your 
location.  Watch  the  advertising  columns  of  the  farm  and  fruit 
papers  and  books.  Send  for  prices  and  compare.  The  adver- 
tisements will  be  your  buying  guide  for  a  good  many  things. 

Pears  are  best  packed  in  the  bushel  boxes  or  in  hampers. 
They  should  be  wrapped  in  tissue  paper,  first  carefully  graded, 
and  very  carefully  arranged.  The  arrangement  in  the  packages 
will  be  same  as  for  apples.  Some  very  fine  pears  can  be  shipped 
in  peach  carriers  and  sell  to  advantage.  Plain  fruit  is  handled 
best  without  tissue  wrapping  in  hampers. 

128 


PICKING,   PACKING   AND    MARKETING 

Many  of  the  directions  given  for  packing  apples  will  give 
you  hints  on  packing  peaches,  plums  and  other  fruit.  Various 
boxes  and  baskets  are  used  for  peaches.  The  best  we  have  seen 
is  the  flat  box  of  the  West.  This  is  eleven  and  a  half  by  eighteen 
inches,  and  four,  four  and  a  half,  or  five  inches  deep.  Just 
two  layers  of  peaches  are  put  into  it,  arranged  just  as  you 
would  place  apples  of  the  same  size  in  a  box.  Peaches  should 
be  wrapped  if  they  are  fine.  The  regular  one-sixth  and  one- 
half-bushel  baskets  and  the  high,  flaring  hampers  also  are  good 
for  peaches.  They  come  in  various  sizes.  Sometimes  the  fruit 
is  arranged  in  rows  and  tiers,  but  more  often  it  is  left  in  a 
jumble.  The  rows  are  better,  of  course.  The  six-basket  carrier 
is  invaluable  for  the  little  baskets.  In  packing  peaches,  the  use 
of  corrugated  caps  and  excelsior  pads  is  especially  recom- 
mended. A  thick  pad  under  the  lid  of  a  carrier  will  hold  the 
fruit  solid,  and  will  prevent  the  top  layer  bruising.  Always  use 
corrugated  boards  under  hamper  lids.  It  pays.  Quinces  may 
be  handled  in  the  same  way  as  pears.  Grading  these  two  fruits 
must  be  done  by  hand,  and  the  different  classes  separated  as 
described  for  apples.  Plums  have  no  special  package.  Peach 
baskets  and  boxes,  grape  baskets  and  strawberry  boxes  are 
good  carriers  for  them.  They  should  be  arranged  in  rows, 
but  need  little  wrapping,  only  the  lining  paper  and  the  cor- 
rugated caps.  Cherries  are  best  nicely  arranged  in  rows  in  flat 
wooden  boxes.  They  can  be  marketed  in  strawberry  boxes,  but 
this  appears  to  be  a  makeshift.  Ten-pound  baskets  some- 
times are  seen.  Grapes  should  be  left  to  wilt  for  twenty-four 
hours  before  they  are  graded,  and  then  put  into  baskets  hold- 
ing three,  five,  eight  and  ten  pounds.  These  baskets  are  shipped 
in  crates,  and  never  are  unpacked  until  they  reach  the  eaters. 
If  it  is  desired  to  hold  grapes  for  quite  a  while  in  cold  storage, 
or  in  refrigator  cars,  they  must  be  packed  in  barrels  and  half- 
barrels,  with  cork  "sawdust"  as  a  filler  between  bunches. 

Drying,  processing,  making  apple-butter,  peach-  and  pear- 
butter,  and  vinegar,  etc.,  will  use  up  all  bruised  fruits.  We  can 
not  give  details  here,  but  the  tools  and  labor  involved  are  within 
reach  of  every  grower.  Learn  about  them  and  realize  on  the 
windfalls  and  drops. 

As  for  selling,  it's  mostly  up  to  you.  You  can  grow  good 
fruit  and  throw  it  on  the  regular  market.  If  you  have  graded 
and  packed  it  right,  you  hardly  can  fail  to  make  a  profit — get 
from  $i  to  $2  per  bushel  for  apples,  say,  and  other  fruits  in 
proportion.  But  "the  man  worth  while"  will  not  be  satisfied 
with  what  the  regular  market  gives  him.  He  will  look  up  his 
own  consumers,  or  will  get  acquainted  with  big  retailers  or  with 
a  good  commission-man,  then  stick  to  the  same  people  until 
mutual  confidence  and  dependence  are  established.  They  will 
appreciate  the  extra  care  given  to  the  fruit,  and  pay  high  prices 
for  it.  Sometimes  buyers  will  come  to  the  orchard  and  take  all 
the  fruit  you  grow  at  a  certain  price,  or  you  may  be  able  to 
work  up  a  trade  in  shipping  your  fruit  to  users  all  over  the  coun- 
try. Unless  you  can  do  this,  or  know  your  commission  house 
very  well,  we  strongly  advise  getting  buyers  to  come  to  the 

129 


HOW    TO    GROW   AND    MARKET    FRUIT 

orchard  and  buy  for  cash.  You  should  grade  and  pack  your 
fruit,  however,  with  all  care,  and  you  should  keep  in  touch  with 
the  market. 

The  very  lest  way  to  get  the  most  money  out  of  fine  fruit 
is  through  growers'  organizations.  Selling  conditions  in  the 
East  at  present  are  nothing  more  than  a  jumble.  A  few  growers 
have  located  a  market  for  their  product,  and  are  getting  good 
prices,  but  for  the  great  majority  of  growers  there  is  nothing 
better  than  what  some  one  or  two  buyers  offer.  If  half  of  our 
eastern  men  could  see  for  themselves  how  fruit  is  sold  in  the 
West,  they  would  do  things  differently  by  the  time  next  year's 
crop  is  ready  to  be  sold. 

In  the  West,  a  smaller  or  larger  number  of  growers  will 
get  together,  agree  on  standard  grading  and  packing,  adopt 
a  label  for  the  association,  provide  storage  and  shipping  facil- 
ities in  some  cases  (but  this  is  not  vital),  hire  inspectors,  who 
will  see  that  all  fruit  is  up  to  the  standard  in  every  way,  and  sell 
all  the  fruit  through  one  of  the  officers.  Very  high  prices  are 
secured  in  this  way.  The  big  buyers  know  they  can  depend  on 
the  quality  of  the  fruit  and  the  correctness  of  the  pack,  and  will 
hotly  compete  among  themselves  for  your  fruit.  The  processing 
of  second-grade  fruit  and  the  handling  of  by-products,  securing 
good  freight  rates,  buying  spraying  materials,  equipments,  and 
buying  market  packages,  are  all  done  a  hundred  per  cent 
better  by  an  organization  than  by  the  individual  orchardists. 
It  does  not  matter  what  kind  of  fruit  is  grown. 

On  the  Delaware  and  Maryland  Peninsula,  and  in  certain 
sections  of  the  middle  West,  another  kind  of  organized  selling 
is  carried  on  effectively.  Growers'  unions,  or  farmers'  unions' 
are  formed,  officers  elected,  and  these  men  seek  out  markets 
for  every  product  raised.  They  have  an  office,  or  remain  near 
the  station  or  landing,  all  the  time  during  season,  and  promptly 
buy  everything  offered  them  (for  cash  or  on  consignment) 
at  highest  market  rates.  No  profit  is  made,  and  the  total 
of  the  prices  received  is  given  to  growers,  after  the  small  run- 
ning expenses  are  subtracted.  The  commission-men  in  the 
cities  send  their  buyers  to  the  stations  to  compete  with  the 
union  buyers,  and  many  times  individuals  will  do  the  same. 
The  buyers  keep  cars  waiting  all  the  time,  and  forward  stuff 
immediately.  It  is  a  poor  community  that  cannot  load  several 
cars  a  day  all  through  harvesting  season. 

The  organized  selling  idea  and  practice  is  what  the  East 
lacks.  Hardly  any  community  would  fail  to  make  a  big  success 
of  such  a  plan,  if  two  or  three  live  men  would  start  a  movement 
for  it.  We  know  that  it  is  successful,  and  we  strongly  urge  all 
our  friends  to  try  some  such  system  for  handling  the  next  crop. 
We  shall  be  glad  to  tell  you  in  detail  of  the  by-laws  and 
organization  of  some  of  the  Peninsula  organizations  if  you 
will  write  us. 

One  last  word.  Keep  posted.  Read  farm  and  fruit  papers 
and  books.  They  will  aid  you  in  many  a  problem,  and  will  help 
you  to  make  your  orchard  a  success  and  your  life  interesting  and 
worth  while. 

130 


PICKING,   PACKING  AND    MARKETING 


SUMMARY 

Half  of  the  failures  to  make  fruit-growing  profitable  come 
from  careless  and  improper  picking,  grading,  packing  and  selling. 

Pick  the  fruit  at  the  right  time.  Handle  it  as  you  would 
eggs,  rush  it  into  cool  storage,  carefully  grade  it  into  three  or 
four  classes,  and  pack  it  so  it  will  reach  the  consumer  in  as  good 
shape  as  it  grew. 

With  much  fruit  to  handle,  grading  machines  are  time-  and 
money-savers. 

Grading  and  packing  are  almost  a  science.  They  require 
study  and  skill,  and  their  importance  must  be  realized  more  than 
in  the  past. 

Always  put  your  name  and  address  on  your  packages  of 
fruit.  Name  your  orchard,  and  get  an  attractive  design  for 
package  labels  if  possible. 

You  can  use  nearly  all  culls  by  drying  or  processing.  Can- 
ning, preserving,  making  syrups,  juices,  cider,  vinegar,  etc.,  are 
very  profitable  methods  of  preventing  waste. 

In  selling,  get  acquainted  with  good  commission  men,  or 
with  retail  customers,  and  stick  to  them,  or  invite  the  buyers 
to  your  orchard  and  sell  for  cash,  you  to  pick  and  pack  the 
fruit. 

If  possible,  organize  a  fruit-grower's  association.  Such  an 
organization  will  surely  be  able  to  get  50  per  cent  more  for 
all  fruit  produced  than  individual  growers  can.  It  is  the  solu- 
tion of  a  great  many  problems  that  puzzle  eastern  growers. 
Through  it  buying  and  selling  are  done  from  a  commanding 
position,  rather  than  from  a  begging  one.  An  association  can 
dictate  terms  to  buyers,  instead  of  buyers  making  the  offers. 


TJERE'S  a  simple, 
•t^- strong,  low-priced 
light-draft  riding  harrow  which 

covers  more  surface  with  less  draft  than  any 
other  cultivator  made.     It  works  right'  up  to 
the  trees  and  under  lowest  branches  without 
harming  fruit  or  leaves  in  the  least 


Fbt»kitet» 
Liht  Draft  Harrows, 


/or*  Or 


make  it  possible  to  thoroughly  cultivate  20  to  30  acres  per  day  with  two  horses. 
They  lift  and  turn  the  soil  and  leave  it  in  slight  waves,  thus  exposing  more 
surface  to  the  chemical  action  of  the  sun  and  rain.      They  make  a  perfect 
dust-mulch,  which  conserves  maximum  amount  of  moisture. 

Write  for  Free  Trial  Offer—and  Booklet. 
We  will  ship  to  responsible  parties  on  30  days'  riskless  free  trial. 
kFree  booklet,  "Modern  Orchard  Tillage,"  tells  the  whole  story. 

LIGHT  DRAFT  HARROW  CO. 

Blank  St..  Manhalltown,  Iowa 


Grow  Fruit  Where  Fruit -Growing 
Is  Easiest  and  Marketing  Best 

Why  spend  days  and  weeks,  and  hundreds  of  dollars,  overcoming 
bugs  and  fungi,  when  you  can  so  easily  start  growing  fruit  on  the 
Delaware-Maryland  Peninsula,  where,  on  account  of  salt  air,  cool 
nights,  etc.,  enemies  trouble  trees  less  than  anywhere  else  in  America? 

The  Peninsula  is  not  South,  nor  entirely  North.  It  has  the  cool 
nights  and  fresh  breezes  of  northern  mountain  and  seashore  locali- 
ties, the  tempered  winters  and  much  sunshine  of  southern  lands. 
The  ocean  and  the  bays  are  only  a  few  miles  away.  Spring  frost 
damage  is  largely  absent.  The  air  is  moisture-laden  all  summer. 

Peninsula  soil  is  deep,  rich  sandy  loam,  or  sand,  loam  and  clay.  Roots 
go  far  and  deep.  Plant  food  will  not  leach.  Some  of  the  land  has 
been  farmed  for  two  hundred  years  and  still  is  rich  as  ever.  Mar- 
keting facilities  are  wonderfully  good.  You  can  sell  everything 
you  produce  at  the  railroad  station  nearest  you  for  highest 
market  prices.  For  selling  their  product,  growers  of  the  Peninsula 
are  organized  in  a  manner  equaled  m  only  one  or  two  other  localities 
in  the  country. 

Get  our  book,  '•  Where  Markets  Seek  You."  It  tells  all  about 
these  advantages  for  the  farmer  and  fruit  grower — shows  you  with 
many  pictures  taken  last  summer,  in  the  orchards  and  farms  and 
markets  of  the  best  place  to  live  in  the  country.  Land  is 
cheap.  We  will  help  you  get  acquainted.  Let  us  hear  from  you. 

The  Peninsula  Real  Estate  Company 

North  B  Street,  Selbyville,  Delaware 


Special  Apple  Box 


Pack  Fruit  Right! 

Shiftless  packing  accounts  for  half  of  the 
failures  to  get  big  returns  from  fruit.  Modern 
markets  pay  high  prices  and  demand  trainload 
after  trainload  of  fruit,  but  it  must  be  packed 
right.  The  fruit  must  reach  the  consumer  in 
practically  as  good  shape  as  it  left  the  orchard. 

Intelligent  packing  in  boxes,  hampers,  baskets 
and  crates  is  not  difficult,  but  the  right  kinds 
of  these  packages  are  not  to  be  had  everywhere. 
Some  are  made  of  poorly  adapted  material, 
others  are  wrong  in  size  and  shape.  It  often  is 
difficult  to  get  delivery  on  time.  Many  growers 
are  paying  too  much  because  modern  packages 
are  comparatively  new  to  them,  and  they 
hardly  know  what  is  a  fair  price. 

COLES  &  COMPANY 

will  help  you  out.  This  firm  manufactures  its 
own  packages,  has  mills  and  factories  in  the 
best  lumber-producing  sections,  and  gets  cheap 
water  and  rail  freight  rates  to  its  warehouses. 
It  can  ship  on  short  notice  any  reasonable 
number  of  any  package. 

Standard  and  special  apple  boxes,  shipped 
knocked  down,  printed  on  one  or  both  ends  in 
car  lots  without  extra  charge.  Hampers,  all 
sizes;  peach  baskets,  all  sizes;  Cole's  Improved 
Picking  basket,  with  swinging  steel  handle; 
Arrow  Brand  sweet  gum  berry  baskets,  excel- 
sior cushions,  corrugated  caps,  lace  paper 
circles,  packing  paper  and  tissue  fruit  wrappers. 
Get  prices  on  what  you  need — you  will  be  sur- 
prised how  low  they  are.  You  will  be  pleased 
with  the  quality  of  the  packages  and  our 
prompt  service. 

COLES  &  COMPANY 

Package  Dept,  109-111  Warren  St.,  New  York  City 
Be  sure  to  address  "Package  Department" 


Hamper 


Peach  Basket 


Corrugated  Caps 


Excelsior  Cushions  for  Barrel 
and  Baskets 


ARPOW 


BRAND 


Coles'  Improved  Swinging- 
handle  Picking  Basket 


Sweet  Gum  Berry 
Basket 


The  genuine  "CUTAWAY"  tools  are  used  and  endorsed  by  suc- 
cessful orchardists  from  coast  to  coast  and  from  bay  to  gulf 

In  orchard  work,  the  driver  can  cultivate  under 
the  trees  and  below  the  low  limbs,  the  horses  not 
interfering  with  the  branches.  The  double  levers  give 
the  driver  full  control  of  tool  at  all  times.  For  regu- 
lar farm  work,  the  gangs  can  be  drawn  together. 

UTAWAY 

Single  Action  Orchard  Harrow 


Every  orchardist  and  fruit- 
grower should  have  one  or  more 
of  these  labor  savers  and  fruit 
makers.  They  will  positively  pay 
for  themselves  in  one  season.  To 
investigate  is  to  be  convinced. 
Thorough  cultivation  makes  large  crops.  Stirring  the 
soil  lets  in  the  air,  sunshine  and  new  life,  and  kills  foul 
vegetation.  The  "CUTAWAY"  disc  slices,  stirs,  lifts, 
twists  and  aerates  the  soil.  CLARK'S  "CUTAWAY"  TOOLS 
run  lighter  and  do  better  work  than  any  other  machine. 
Lasts  a  lifetime. 

Send  today  for  new  catalog,  "Intensive  Cultivation." 
Of  course,  it's  free. 

CUTAWAY  HARROW  COMPANY 

200  Main  Street  Higganum.  Connecticut 

y.  ff.  Hale,  the  "Peach  King,"  -writes:  "The  Double  Action  'CUT- 
AWAY' is  a  splendid  tool.  I  use  it  in  polishing1  off  my  peach  orchards 
several  times  a  year.  A  good  pair  of  horses  handle  it  all  right." 


How  to  Sell  YOUR  Apples  for 
Three  Dollars  a  Bushel — We 
Can  Help  You  Get  WESTERN 
Prices  for  EASTERN  Fruit 

Eastern-grown  fruit  sells  in  New  York  and  other  big  markets  for  one-half  to 
two-thirds  of  the  prices  paid  for  western-grown  fruit  that  is  not  a  whit  better. 

Eastern  fruit  is  better  flavored  and  will  keep  longer;  shipped  only  two  or 
three  hundred  miles,  it  reaches  consumers  in  better  condition  than  is  possible 
with  fruit  shipped  two  or  three  thousand  miles. 

Eastern  fruit  is  superior  in  many  ways  to  western  fruit,  and  it  ought  to 
bring  more  money.  It  doesn't  solely  because  Western  growers  are  better 
organized,  and  know  better  how  to  sell  than  those  of  the  East.  When  a 
grower  or  a  community  learns  how  to  grade  and  pack,  and  has  standardized 
the  quality  of  fruit  shipped,  as  well  as  the  condition  and  size  of  packages, 
buyers  come  after  the  fruit  and  pay  the  prices  asked. 

There  is  no  secret  about  getting  high  prices  regularly.  System  and  organi- 
zation are  the  things.  Twentieth  century  methods  bring  the  high  prices.  If 
you  grow  good  fruit,  we  can  help  you  get  three  dollars  a  bushel  for  apples, 
and  proportionate  prices  for  other  fruits.  We  have  helped  Florida  growers 
get  more  ^or  their  citrus  fruits  than  they  ever  did  before.  The  citrus  fruit 
industry  is  on  a  firmer  basis  there  in  consequence,  and  the  whole  state  has 
been  benefited.  This  is  but  one  instance.  Let  us  tell  you  how  you  can 
simplify  your  selling  problem,  and  realize  the  most  money. 

The  McFarland  Publicity  Service 

Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania 


March 


Keep  Posted.  Make  Hundreds 
of  Dollars  More  Than  You  Do 

A  man  in  Maryland  wanted  to  spray  a  peach 
orchard,  but  his  brother,  who  owned  a  half  interest, 
wouldn't  allow  it.  Result:  that  fall  the  crop  was 
only  30%  of  normal  in  quality,  and  brought  little 
profit.  The  first  man  had  seen  indications  of  a  cer- 
tain fungus,  and  was  partly  posted,  but  he  wasn't 
sure,  and  the  second  man  didn't  know  anything 
about  it. 

A  man  in  Missouri  had  a  fine  crop  of  apples, 
which  had  been  well  cared  for— but  he  lacked  mar- 
keting knowledge.  He  didn't  know  what  his  apples 
were  worth;  he  didn't  know  how  to  grade  them, 
pack  them,  where  to  get  packages,  or  who  would 
buy  the  fruit.  A  buyer  visited  his  orchard,  offered 
him  $3,000  for  his  crop  on  the  trees,  and  he  ac- 
cepted. This  was  just  before  picking.  The  buyer 
picked  almost  $20,000  worth  of  apples  from  this  man's  trees.  The  orchardist 
had  actually  lost  at  least  $10,000  by  his  failure  to  keep  posted. 

Another  man  got  to  thinking  of  fruit  after  he  had  taken  a  trip  to  the  city, 
and  when  he  came  home  he  planted  1,800  trees  of  a  variety  which  was  not  in 
market  demand,  and  what  was  worse,  planted  the  block  solid  with  the  one  var- 
iety, which  would  not  pollinate  itself.  He  now  has  to  top-work  all  those  trees. 

Don't  throw  away  so  much  money  There's  just  one  way  to  keep  posted 

These  are  not  exceptional  cases.  Read  The  Fruit-Grower,  an  d_read  The 
either.  There  are  buyers  who 


are 

simply  look  for  the  unposted 
man,  and  when  they  find  him, 
they   soak    him    hard.    The 
need  of  keeping  posted  runs 
through  all  the  fruit-grow- 
ing game.    You  can  gain  a 
year's  growth  sometimes  by 
some  kink  in  planting,  save 
ten  dollars  here  and  fifty  dol- 
lars there  by  a  little  different 
spraying,  increase  the  bushels 
and    the    quality    by    careful 
r  doubh 


Fruit-Growers'  Guide-Book.  The 
Fruit-Grower    is    easily    the 
leading  fruit  and  farm  paper 
of  America.    It  is  so  much 
more   meaty  and  practical 
that  no  others  claim  to  be 
as  good.    It  will  tell  you 
what  growers  are  doing  to 
get  bigger  and  better  crops, 
will  tell  you  where  to  get 
supplies,  what  your  crop  _is 
worth,  and   where  to   sell  it. 
The  things  it  will  tell  you  will 
be   worth   to    you   more    in   a 
year  than  the  best  man  you 
could  hire. 


pruning,  or  double  your  money 
receipts    by    properly    grading  Rl 
and  packing  your  fruit. 

THE  FRUIT-GROWER'S  GUIDE-BOOK  has  almost  300  pages,  cloth  bound 
and  is  a  business  book  from  the  first  page  on.  This  advertisement  appears  in  a 
very  good  fruit  book,  but  are  not  two  heads  wiser  than  one  ?  Our  chapters  on 
enemies,  spraying,  harvesting,  grading,  packing,  processing  and  marketing,  are 
particularly  complete.  Where  words  will  not  tell  the  story  clearly  enough,  pic- 
tures and  drawings  are  used.  For  instance,  with  it  as  a  guide,  you  can  identify 
any  bug  or  fungus;  diagnose  any  fruit  tree  disease;  prune  any  kind  of  a  fruit 
tree  in  the  proper  manner;  you  can  put  smoothly-peeled  peaches,  whole  or 
halved,  into  the  small  glass  jars  you  see  in  the  city  groceries  and  you  can  do 
a  hundred  other  things  you  will  be  called  upon  to  do  on  a  fruit  farm,  which 
will  pay  you  the  extra  money. 

$2  VALUE  FOR  $1 

Send  us  $i  NOW,  and  we  will  send  you  The 
Fruit-Grower  one  year,  and  The  Fruit-Grower's 
Guide-Book.  The  subscription  price  of  The  Fruit- 
Grower  is  $i  per  year,  and  the  price  of  the  book 
is  $i — you  are  getting  $2  value,  considering  the 
regular  price.  In  reality  you  are  getting  a  $500 
value,  for  the  magazine  and  the  book  will  be  worth 
that  much  to  you  if  you  have  not  had  them  before. 
Properly  read,  they  amount  to  a  thorough  educa- 
tion in  fruit  culture.  How  much  would  that  be 
worth  to  you?  Send  your  order  in  at  once,  as  this 
offer  will  not  hold  indefinitely,  and  you  may  be 
missing  some  good  chances  right  now,  which  the 
magazine  or  the  book  will  tell  you  of. 

THE  FRUIT-GROWER 


ST.  JOSEPH 


MISSOURI 


Choose  the  Pioneer! 

The  average  sprayer  has  been  on  the  market 
only  a  few  years — five  or  ten  is  about  the  limit 
for  a  good  many  of  them. 

We  commenced  making  Deming  Sprayers  in 
the  early  90's ;  we  have  been  in  the  spray  pump 
business  for  nearly  twenty  years. 

That  gives  us  a  big  start — we've  kept  right  at 
it,  every  year  up  to  and  including  this  present 
one,  trying  out  our  own  machines.  We've 
watched  them  at  work  in  our  customers'  orchards 
— tried  them  under  every  kind  of  severe  test  to 
find  out  where  they  needed  improving — and 
have  brought  the  original  types  of  1891  to  the 
compact,  well-balanced,  enduring  machines  with 
which  the  growers  of  the  country  are  so  familiar. 

We  make  several  styles  of  power  outfits,  and 
more  than  15  different  hand  machines  beside. 
Our  nozzles  are  known  everywhere,  as  well  as 
our  attachments,  hose  and  other  supplies. 

MORE  ON  NEXT  PAGE— READ  ON 

THE  DEMING  "PREMIER."    21A  or  3Y2  H.  P.  Engine,  Air-cooled 


Deming  Spray  Pumps 


Used  By  Successful 
Orchardists  Everywhere 

A  great  many  of  whom,  when  buying  additional  equipment, 
specify  "Deming's"  again.  That,  we  think,  is  the  strongest  O.K. 
they  could  give.  Deming's  Spray  Pumps  please  the  growers  for 
several  good  reasons: 

They  are  designed  right — well-balanced.  Their  construction  is 
substantial,  rigid  —  all  parts  in  constant  alignment.  No  surplus 
weight — a  big  feature  in  any  orchard,  particularly  one  on  a 
hillside. 

They  are  built  right.  All  parts  touched  by  spray  liquid  are  solid 
brass — can't  corrode.  Other  castings  are  made  of  durable,  close- 
grained  gray  iron,  carefully  inspected  before  assembling. 

They  work  right  —  maintaining  a  strong,  steady  pressure,  varying 
from  80  to  250  pounds,  according  to  the  number  of  nozzles.  The 
spray  is  driven  hard  and  in  a  fine,  misty  fog  against  the  branch — 
and  it  sticks  there,  doing  the  most  lasting  good. 

Deming  Outfits  are  handled  by  leading  hardware  dealers;  stocks 
carried  in  principal  cities.  Catalogue  free  —  we'll  include^a  copy 
of  Prof.  Weed's  valuable  little  book,  "  Spraying  for  Profit,"  if  you 
mention  having  seen  this  advertisement  in  "How  to  Grow  and 
Market  Fruit."  State  how  many  trees  or  acres  of  orchard  you  have. 

THE  DEMING  COMPANY 

105  SUCCESS  BUILDING  SALEM,  OHIO 

Manufacturers  of  Hand  and  Power  Pumps  for  All  Uses 
Compression  Tank  Systems.  Hydraulic  Rams.  Etc. 


THE  DEMING  "CENTURY" 


THE  DEMING  "SAMSON" 


Deming  Spray  Pumps 


Use  Orchard  Brand  Sprays 
For  EFFECTIVE  Control 


Solution 

Soluble  Oil 

ArsenateofLead 

Atomic  Sulphur 

(The  greatest 
fungicide) 


COOPERATION 

Means 
Mutual  Benefits 

Our  customers  receive, 
free  of  charge,  or  of 
obligation,  the  most 
valuable  orchard  in- 
formation and  help. 

Write  for  Orchard  Census 
Blanks — they  are  free 


Oriole  Weed 
Killer 

Kills  grass  and  weeds 
anywhere 

Atomic  Sulphur 

and 
Arsenite  of  Zinc 

For  potatoes  and 
truck 


You  wouldn't  spray  your  trees  with  clear  water,  just  for 
the  sake  of  spraying.  You'd  know  it  was  time  and  money 
wasted. 

You  spray  to  control  "bugs,"  and  you  can't  afford  to 
waste  time  and  opportunity  with  spray  mixtures  that  pro- 
duce uncertain  results — when  you  can  get  Orchard  Brand 
Mixtures.  These  solutions  always  do  the  work  they  are 
intended  to  do,  because  the  chemicals  are  combined  right 
and  then  tested,  by  makers  who  have  developed  great 
skill  through  long  study  of  orchard  problems. 

Shrewd,  successful  growers  all  over  the  United  States 
are  using  and  recommending  Orchard  Brand  Mixtures, 
because  they  make  results  so  much  more  certain,  efficiency 
so  much  greater,  and  final  cost  in  relation  to  returns  so 
much  less  than  any  other  spraying  mixture  you  could  use. 

There  are  wide  differences  among  the  varieties  of  fruit  in 
their  behavior  in  orchards,  their  resistance  to  insects  and 
fungi,  and  in  effects  of  chemical  treatment  on  them.  The 
most  successful  orchardists  are  those  who  understand  these 
differences  and  apply  their  knowledge  when  spraying,  prun- 
ing and  cultivating. 

In  the  development  of  its  business  of  making  insecti- 
cides and  fungicides,  the  Thomsen  Chemical  Company  has 
worked  along  scientific  lines  for  the  past  eight  or  ten  years, 
carefully  accumulating  knowledge  of  these  differences  and 
of  their  bearing  on  orchard  operations. 

This  store  of  information  is  at  the  service  of  fruit 
growers.  On  request,  we  will  furnish  blanks  for  a  census 
of  your  orchard,  on  which  you  can  fill  in  the  varieties, 
age  of  trees,  soil  conditions  and  other  data.  This  will 
enable  us  to  give  you  many  valuable  hints  that  will  mean 
dollars  in  your  pocket. 

Write  for  some  blanks  and  for  information  about  Or- 
chard Brand  Spraying  Mixtures  now.  The  time  to  plan 
next  year's  spraying  is  months  before  you  start.  You 
don't  know  what  handy,  efficient  spraying  is  till  you  get 
acquainted  with  us — let  us  hear  from  you. 

THOMSEN  CHEMICAL  COMPANY 

Atomic  Division,  BALTIMORE,  MD. 


INDEX  TO  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Acme  harrow,  4. 

Asparagus,  13,  19. 

Air  drainage,  3,  35. 

Aphis,  63. 

Apple  box,  82,  133. 

Apple  trees,  headed  right,  41. 

Asparagus,  13,  19. 

Bagging  grapes,  100. 
Barrel  sprayer,  64. 
Bartlett  pear,  117. 
Baskets,  picking  82,  133. 
Baskets,  peach,  99,  133. 
Beans,  14. 
Bitter  rot,  58. 
Blossoms,  42. 
Blossoms,  grape,  117. 
Blotch,  58. 
Bolting,  57. 
Box  compressor,  81. 
Boxes,  133. 
Buds,  frozen,  63. 

Carriers,  peach,  99. 

Cedar  rust,  58. 

Chemicals,  138. 

Cherries,  99,  117,  118. 

Chicken-yard  planting,  35. 

Clover,  13. 

Cluster  buds,  63. 

Cooperative  marketing,  118. 

Codlin  moth,  spraying  stage  for,  64. 

Cover  crop,  13,  14. 

Crotch  splits,  57. 

Cultivation,  3,  4,  20,  25. 

Cutting-back,  41. 

Cutting,  wrong,  42. 

Curl  leaf,  58. 

Diagonal  pack,  82. 
Drainage,  13. 
Dust  mulch,  25. 
Dwarf  trees,  13,  36,  42. 
Dynamite,  14,  26. 

Exposure,  3. 

Facing  barrels,  82. 
Frog  eye,  58. 
Frost  damage,  63. 
Fruit  stand,  n8. 

Garden,  fruit,  13. 

Grafting,  57. 

Greenhouse,  117. 

Grading,  117. 

Grapes,  3,  99. 

Grape,  bearing  habit  of,  117. 

Grapes  under  glass,  117. 

Hampers,  81,  82,  133. 
Harrows,  4,  134,  152- 
Heads,  low,  82. 
Heading,  wrong,  42. 
Heeling-in,  26. 

Irrigation,  14. 

Inter-crop,  14,  19,  35,  "8. 


Leaf  curl,  58. 
Legumes,  3,  13. 
Lime-sulphur,  138. 

Marketing,  118. 
Market  packages,  118-133. 
Mice  damage,  20. 
Moisture  conserving,  25. 

Nipping,  48. 
Nozzles,  8z. 

Orchard  plan,  25. 

Orchard  records,  47. 

Orchard,    young,   4, 13,    14,   20,   81, 

118. 
Ornamental  fruit  trees,  42. 

Packing,  81,  82,  99,  117,  118. 

Peach,  headed  right,  35,  41,  47. 

Peaches,  Ray,  99. 

Peach  orchard,  13,  19,  35. 

Pears,  3,  36,  41,  117. 

Peas,  3. 

Picking,  82. 

Planting  system,  25,  26. 

Planting,  too  close,  35. 

Pollination,  insufficient,  63. 

Power  sprayers,  64,  81,  136. 

Pruning,  3,  41,  42. 

Pruning  tools,  47. 

Processing,  82. 

Quince,  100. 

Roadside  planting,  3. 
Rust,  58. 

San  Jose"  Scale  on  fruit,  63. 

Scab,  58. 

Selling,  1 1 8. 

Shipping,  82,  118. 

Sod  mulch,  13,  19,  20,  36,  48. 

Split  forks,  57. 

Spraying,  57,  64,  8x. 

Sprayers,  57,  64,  81,  136,  137. 

Spraying  house,  57. 

Scab,  spraying  stage  for,  63. 

Staking,  grape,  99,  100. 

Storing,  8x. 

Strawberries,  14,  19,  25,  100,  118. 

Tags,  47- 

Tanks,  57. 

Take-home  baskets,  82. 

Thinning,  36,  42,  48. 

Tomatoes,  19,  25. 

Top  working,  57. 

Tree  butchery,  42. 

Trees,  young  bearing,  20,  26,  42,  8x. 

Trellises,  99,  100,  117. 

Vineyard,  99,  100. 

Way  orchard,  20. 
Windbreaks,  4,  48. 
Wrappings,  8a. 
Whitewashing,  3. 


139 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS  TREATED 


Galley  2.    Index.    Harrison. 

Acme  harrow,  4. 

Air  drainage,  3,  35,  44,  46,  60. 

Air  flow,  46. 

Air  spaces  in  soil,  37. 

Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate,  91. 

Anthracnose,  87. 

Antiseptic,  77. 

Aphides,  84. 

Aphis,  63. 

Apple  spraying,  84. 

Apple  enemies,  104. 

Apple  box,  82,  133. 

Apple  orchard,  35. 

Apple,  102. 

Apple  box  compressor,  81. 

Apple  trees,  headed  right,  41. 

Arsenite  of  zinc,  86. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  76,  77,  86,  92. 

Asparagus,  13,  19,  40. 

Asparagus  beetle,  86. 

Bacteria,  7,  21,  69. 

Bagging  grapes,  100. 

Bartlett  pear,   117. 

Baskets,  picking  82. 

Baskets,  peach,  99. 

Baskets,  122,  126,  133. 

Barrel,  facing  apple,  82. 

Barrel  sprayer,  64. 

Berry  moth,  87. 

Bear,  making  trees,  101. 

Beans,  14. 

Bitter  rot,  58. 

Blossoms,  42,  56. 

Blossoms,  pinching,  68. 

Blossoms,  grape,  117. 

Blossom  shucks,  64. 

Blotch,  86,  158. 

Blight,  86. 

Black  rot,  87. 

Blue  beetle,  87. 

Bolting  trees,  57,  98. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  77,    85,    90,    91, 

138. 

Bordeaux-poison,  94. 
Borers,  94. 
Boxes,  126,  133. 
Books,  135. 
Box  compressor,  81. 
Brown  rot,  86. 
Bridge  grafting,  97. 
Burying  trees,  53. 
Buds,  disappointing,  68. 
Buds,  frozen,  63. 
Butchery,  tree,  42. 

Capillarity,  xi. 
Canker  worms,  84,  86. 
Carriers,  peach,  99. 
Cedar  rust,  58,  84. 
Chemical  action,  soil,  21. 
Chemicals,  138. 
Cherry,  86,  99,  in,  117. 
Cherry  enemies,  112. 
Cherry  cultivation,  in. 


Cherry  orchard,  118. 

Chicken  yard  planting,  35. 

Cloud,  86. 

Cluster  buds,  63. 

Clover,  13. 

Costs,  5. 

Cover    crops,    12,    13,    14,   23,    27, 

28. 

Cover  crop  seed,  28. 
Codlin  moth,  64,  84,  105,106. 
Co-operative  marketing,  118. 
Crops,  normal,  18. 
Crops  every  year,  74. 
Cross  pollination,  54,  56,  103,  119. 
Crotch  splits,  57. 
Cultivation,  early  spring,  38. 
Cultivation,    mulching,    and    other 

orchard  treatment,  33-44. 
Cultivation,  20,  25,  34,  43,  45,  107. 
Cutting  limbs,  66,  69. 
Cutting,  wrong,  42. 
Cutting  back,  41. 
Currant,  86. 
Curculios,  84,  86,  87. 
Culture,  34,  133. 
Curl  leaf,  56. 
Cut  worms,  97. 

Diagonal  pack,  82. 

Directing  growth,     (see     pruning), 

66. 

Diseases,  75,  77,  105-121. 
Double  crops,  32,  40. 
Drainage,  13. 
Dust  mulch,    12,    16,    25,    37,    (see 

moisture) 

Dwarf  trees,  13,  36,  42. 
Dynamite,  14,  15,  16,  26,  34,  39. 

Enemies,j6,  65,  73,  74,  78,  98, 105-121. 
Elevation,  44. 
Essentials,  fourteen,  6. 
Exposure,  3,  45,  49. 

Facing  barrels,  82. 

Farmers'  unions,  130. 

Fertility,  10,  n. 

Fertilizing,  32,  59. 

Feeding  fruit  trees,  16,  18,  73. 

Feeding  fruit  trees,  summary,  33. 

Fillers,  32,  59. 

Fire  blight,  77. 

Fog,  46,  76. 

Formulas,  89,  96. 

Food,  elements,  18. 

Frost  damage,  44,  63. 

Frosty  locations,  50. 

Frost  fighting,  51,  52. 

Fruit  stand,  n. 

Fruit  buds,  67,  68,  73. 

Fruit  spurs,  creating,  68,  69. 

Freezing  temperatures  of  buds  and 

bloom,  45. 

Freezing,  partial,  45. 
Fungi,  69,  75,  76,  105-121. 
Fungicides  and  insecticides,  94. 


140 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS  TREATED 


Fungi — when    to    spray    for,     and 

remedies,  84. 
Fungicides,  77,  89. 

Garden,  fruit,  13. 
Gooseberry,  86. 
Grading,  117,  122,  125. 
Grading,  standard,  123. 
Grading  machines,  124. 
Grafting,  57,  97. 
Grapes,  3,  86,  99,  112. 
Grapes,  management,  112. 
Grapes,  pruning,  113. 
Grape  enemies,  114. 
Grapes  under  glass,  117. 
Grapes,  bearing  habit  of,  117. 
Greenhouse,  117. 
Growth  checking,  68. 
Growers'  organizations,  130. 

Hampers,  81,  82,  126,  133. 
Hamilton  grading  machine,  124. 
Harrows,  16,  37,  132,  134. 
Harrowing,  16,  22,  37,  48. 
Hardpan,  12. 
Heads,  low,  82. 
Heading-back,  65. 
Heading  trees,  66. 
Heading,  wrong,  42. 
Hellebore,  86. 
Heeling-in,  55,  26,  102. 
Heating,  artificial,  46,  51. 
Hitchings'  system,  40. 
Houses,  fruit,  124. 
Humus,  6,  15,  19,  23,  37. 

Insects — when    to    spray    for,    and 

remedies,  84. 
Insecticides,  92. 

Insecticides  and  fungicides,  94. 
Insects,  chewing,  75. 
Insects,  sucking,  75. 
Inter-crops,  14,  19,  35,  40,  118. 
Irrigating,  9,  10,  14. 

Keeping  posted,  83,  135. 
Kerosene  emulsion,  93. 

Land,  fruit,  132. 

Latitude,  45. 

Labels,  128. 

Leaf  buds,  67. 

Leaf  hopper,  87. 

Leaf  spots,  84,  86. 

Leaf  curl,  58. 

Leaf  feeding,  73. 

Leaching,  24. 

Lewis  Orchard,  3,  19,  20. 

Legumes,  3,  7,  13,  23,  24,  27,  28,  33, 

38,  43- 
Light,  6. 
Lime,  6,  22. 
Lime  action,  19,  21. 
Lime-sulphur,  76,  138. 
Lime-sulphur  solution,  77,  86. 
Lime-sulphur,  self-boiled,  77,  86. 
Lime-sulphur,    self-boiled,    how    to 

make,  89. 
Lime-sulphur,  diluted,  90. 


Lime-sulphur  solution,  how  to  make, 

92. 

Lime-sulphur-poison,  94. 
Living  enemies  of  trees,  74. 

Magazines,  135. 

Market  packages,  133. 

Marketing,  6,  122-131,  118. 

Manure,  31,  62. 

Methods  of  keeping  moisture,  10,  17. 

Mice,  84. 

Mice  damage,  20,  38,  84. 

Miscible  oil,  76,  86,  93. 

Mildew,  87. 

Mixing  spray  materials,  83. 

Moisture,  7,  9,  n,  21,  37. 

Moisture,  conserving,  25. 

Mulching,  34,  38,  52,  62,  119 

Nipping,  148. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  30,  62. 

Nitrogen  (see  legumes),  6,  22,  23. 

Nozzles,  80,  181. 

Number  of  trees  to  acre,  60. 

Nursery,  54-56. 

Orchard  treatment,  33,  34. 

Orchard  systems,  43. 

Orchard  heaters,  52. 

Orchard  location,  56. 

Orchard,  young,  4,  13, 14,  20,  81, 118. 

Orchard  records,  47,  97. 

Orchard  plan,  25. 

Organizations,  130. 

Organic  matter,  6,  15,  19,  23,  27. 

Ornamental  fruit  trees,  42. 

Oyster  shell  scale,  84. 

Packing  in  boxes,  81,  82,  127. 

Packing,  99,  117,  118,  122,  133. 

Packing  in  barrels,  82,  126. 

Pasturing  orchards,  39. 

Papers,  135. 

Packages,    market,    (see   varieties), 

126,  129,  133,  135. 
Peach  tree,  headed  right,  35,  41,  47. 
Peach  enemies,  108. 
Peach,  87,  107. 
Peach  orchard,  13,  19,  35. 
Peaches,  packing,  129. 
Peaches,  Ray,  99. 
Peach  baskets,  99. 
Pear,  87,  105,  106. 
Pear  trees,  36,  41. 
Pears,  packing,  128. 
Pear  orchard,  48,  105,  117. 
Peas,  3,  27,  28. 
Phosphorus,  6,  22,  23,  30. 
Picking,  82,  122. 
Picking  baskets,  82,  133. 
Poisoning,  86. 

Pollenation,  insufficient,  63. 
Potash,  6,  22,  23,  29. 
Power  sprayers,  64,  79,  81,  136. 
Plum,  88,  109. 
Plant  lice,  84,  96. 
Plant    foods,    proportions    and 

amounts,  29. 
Planting  plans,  25,  26,  59,  60. 


141 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS  TREATED 


Planting,  34,  54-62,  102, 

Planting,  distance  apart  for,  59,  60. 

Planting  details,  61,  62. 

Planting,  too  close,  35. 

Plantation,  6. 

Plowing,  depth,  38. 

Plowing,  21,  37. 

Props,  73. 

Processing,  82,  129. 

Pruning,  wrong,  42. 

Pruning,  when,  68. 

Pruning  tools,  47,  70. 

Pruning,  41,  61,  65,  71. 

Pruning,  correct,  3. 

Pumps,  79. 

Quality  of  fruit,  44,  74. 
Quince,  88,  ipo,  no. 
Quince  enemies,  no. 

Ray  Peaches,  99. 

Raspberry,  88. 

Rainfall,  10. 

Rabbits,  94. 

Regular  bearing,  74. 

Remedies,  76. 

Ripening  of  wood,  43,  46. 

Ripening,  22,  37,  43-45. 

Roots,  10. 

Roots,  length  of,  38. 

Roots,  pruning,  70. 

Rollers,  16,  37. 

Roadside  planting,  3. 

Rose  chafer,  86. 

Rot,  87. 

Rust,  38,  84,  86. 

San  Jos6  scale,  63,  84,  86. 

Scales,  84,  96. 

Scab,  58,  86. 

Scab,  spraying  stage  for,  63. 

Scuffy  scale,  84. 

Selling,  118,  122,  129,  130,  132,  134. 

Slope,  49,  102. 

Shipping,  82,  1 1 8. 

Shaping  trees,  66. 

Season,  temperature,  45. 

Soil,  6,  7,  8,  18,  21,  56,  102,  105,  107. 

Sod  mulch,  13,  16,  19,  20,  32,  36,  38, 

43,  48,  1 06. 
Soil,  subduing,  34. 
Soil  improvement,  3. 
Small  fruits,  88. 
Size  in  fruit,  123. 
Special  treatment,  7,  102. 
Spraying  mixtures,  89,  138. 
Spray  mixtures,  dormant,  76. 
Spray  mixtures,  foliage,  76. 
Spraying  mixtures,  commercial,   80, 

89,  90,  92,  93,  138. 
Spraying  house,  57. 
Sprayers,  78-83,  136,  137. 
Spraying,  64,  75,  78,  83,  98. 
Spraying  pressure,  78. 
Spraying  calendar,  84. 
Strawberries,  14,  19,  25,  4°,  89,  too, 

115-121. 

Strawberries  as  inter-crop,  115. 
Strawberry  plants,  116. 


Strawberries,  planting,  119. 

Strawberries,  sex  in,  119.  120. 

Strawberry  enemies,  120,  xax. 

Storage,  81,  124. 

Storage  house,  125. 

Soluble  oils,  93. 

Soap  solution,  86,  03- 

Spores,  76. 

Splits,  70,  98. 

Split  forks,  57. 

Stayman  Winesap,  20. 

Stone  wall,  13. 

Staking,  grape,  99,  100. 

Summary  on  frost,  53. 

Subsoil,  7,  15. 

Supplying  plant  food,  22. 

Sun  scald,  46. 

Smudging,  41 

Tags,  tree,  47,  97. 

"Take-home"  baskets,  82. 

Tanks,  83,  157. 

Temperatures  to  keep  fruit,  25. 

Tent  caterpillar,  84,  86. 

Terracing,  39. 

Texture  of  soil,  8 

Tillage,  16. 

Tomatoes,  19,  25,  30,  88. 

Top  working,  97,  157. 

Tobacco,  93. 

Tissue  wrapping,  82. 

Thinning,  36,  42,  48,  71,  74. 

Thermometers,  51. 

Training  trees,  70. 

Triangular  system,  60. 

Trees  pedigree  of,  54. 

Trees,  5,  6,  54,  102. 

Tree  diet,  balanced,  30,  31. 

Trees,  young,  20,  26,  37,^42,  81. 

Tree  butchery,  42. 

Trellises,  99,  100,  117. 

Varieties,  6,  56. 

Varieties,  different  spraying,  77,  78, 

87,  88. 

Varieties,  apple,  103. 
Varieties,  pear,  106. 
Varieties,  peach,  108. 
Varieties,  plum,  109. 
Varieties,  strawberry,  120. 
Vegetable  matter,  6,  15, 19,  23,  27,  37. 
Vineyard,  99,  100. 

Water,  6. 

Water,  too  much,  7,  9. 

Water,  too  little,  9,  11. 

Water,  amount  required,  10. 

Warmth,  6. 

Water  influence,  45. 

Wet  feet,  4. 

Windbreaks,  4,  46,  48,  50,  98. 

Wind,  47- 

Whitewashing,  3. 

Way  orchard,  20. 

Wagons,  fruit,  123. 

Wounds,  69. 

Wrapping,  82. 

Yellows,  77- 


142 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ONf  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OP  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


MAY  17   1915 


LD  21-95m-7,'37 


299655 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


